DISCOURSE AND STYLISTICS: METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Abstract

In the wake of a revolutionary change of interest from language form to language function, attention of many language scholars have been shifted from the structural pattern of language to the function the language is used to perform in social discourses. The present study is one of such endeavours, and essentially explored the fields of Discourse and Stylistics by pointing out their different, but related, methods of text analysis. A brief analysis of an excerpt of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day Speech of 29^th May, 2015 revealed that Discourse investigates more and reproduces more meaning from a text than Stylistics. Stylistics is only a tool used in Discourse.

Introduction

Prior to the advent of Discourse Analysis and Stylistics, the preoccupation of many linguists was basically the study of the structural pattern and form of language without much regard for the context and other features that shape meaning. Over the years however, the attention of language scholars has been shifted from language form to language function. Consequently, many scholars in humanities and social sciences have become keenly interested in the study of Discourse and Stylistics (Olateju 7).

Discourse and Stylistics are two different but closely related linguistic disciplines that are inseparable. The relationship between them can be likened to the proverbial controversy in the actual maternity of the hen and the egg. This is because it is very difficult to draw a line of demarcation between Discourse and Stylistics. While on the one hand, there is hardly any exercise on Discourse without a bit of Stylistic input, Discourse, on the other hand, “is broader in its analysis (Aziz n.pag). While Discourse is essentially communication, Stylistics on the other hand is concerned with the study of the pattern and style of what is communicated. In this study, we shall attempt to discuss Discourse and Stylistics and explore the various ways each of them approach analysis of a given text. To do this properly, we shall analyze paragraph five of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day Speech on 29^th May, 2016 to reveal the levels or methods of text analysis in Discourse and Stylistics.

What is Discourse?

The word ‘discourse’ comes from Latin ‘discursus‘ which denotes ‘conversation, speech’ (Taiwo 14). According to Johnstone, it is “actual instances of communication in the medium of language” (2). Discourse is a discipline that has no stable definition. This is because so many scholars have given varied definitions to it based on their views of the subject matter. The common definition is given by Stubbs. He describes Discourse as “language above the sentence or above the clause” (1). Discourse is meaning communicated far above what is said. The study of Discourse is indeed the “study of many aspects of language use (Fasold 65). Discourse is essentially the study of language in use.

The term Discourse was first used by Zellig Harris in a paper he presented in 1952. As a structural linguist, he did not use Discourse in the sense that is commonly used now. He used it only as a sequence of utterances. It was in the late 1960s that scholars began to use the term as an approach to the study of social interaction. (Taiwo 16). Discourse was fully developed in the 1970s as a critique of cognitive process in communication. It is based on the notion that language needs a context for it to function properly. Thus, it becomes very impossible to understand the linguistic items used in discourse without a context (Ahmad 1).

Discourse is viewed as social performance or a social action. It is a relative social phenomenon that depends solely on wide range of disciplines, such as Psychology, Anthropology, Philosophy, Anthropological Linguistics, Sociology, Cognitive and Social Psychology. This fact is corroborated by Fairclough when he opines that “Discourse constitutes the social. Three dimensions of the social are distinguished- knowledge, social relations, and social identity-and these correspond respectively to three major functions of language” (8).

Discourse, viewed from the linguistic perspective, is, in turn, composed of a wide range of disciplines, such as Stylistics, Pragmatics, Conversational Analysis and Speech Act Theory (Ahmad 2).

Discourse, Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis

Discourse, Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis could be described as a three- in-one discipline mostly used interchangeably especially by non linguists. Discourse is not the same as Discourse Analysis. While Discourse is communication, Discourse Analysis on the other hand is a way of analysing communication (Aziz n.pag). When the analysis of a particular discourse aims at exposing the covert ideology embedded in such a discourse, it can then be said to be at the domain of Critical Discourse Analysis. To put it very simple, when Discourse Analysis becomes more critical (when the hearer or reader uses all linguistic features available in the said to generate meaning of the unsaid in a manner that exposes power and abuse of power, dominance, inequality and invested ideologies) , it becomes Critical Discourse Analysis. Generally speaking, every discourse is structured by dominance and the dominant structures are legitimated by the ideologies of powerful groups (Wodak and Meyer 3).

Discourse Analysis basically studies and examines how an addresser structures his linguistic messages for the addressee and how the addressee in turn uses some linguistic cues to interpret them (the messages) (Brown and Yule qtd. in Taiwo 15).

Social context plays a vital role in generating meaning in a discourse. In fact, it determines the meaning that is to be communicated. Similarly, certain contextual features equally shape the language people use. These are: the interlocutors themselves, their discourse roles and the physical environment of the discourse, the worldview and cultural practices in the domain of the discourse. Discourse Analysis considers language, used together with the aforementioned features, to determine meaning. Discourse Analysis thus generates data for analysis based on the observation and the intuition of the language users. This is why Taiwo believes that a discourse analyst can analyze virtually every conversation, like “(casual, telephone, gossip, etc), speeches (campaigns, formal speeches delivered by political figures, etc), written discourse (novels, plays, news, written speeches, editorials, etc)” (15).

Discourse analysis picks up from where stylistics stops. The tasking questions discourse often asks are: What makes the speaker or writer use language the way he or she does? How does the hearer or reader interpret what the speaker or writer says or writes? Of course, this is where discourse shares a common boundary with Pragmatics. Indeed, the speaker or writer has total control of the choice of words to use but he or she certainly does not have control of the meaning the listener or speaker would derive from what is said or written (Aziz n.pag).

Basic Concepts in Discourse
Text

In Discourse, text simply means any instance of language in use. This comprises not only written language but also spoken language. A text could be as small as a word or sentence and could also be as large as a paragraph (Aziz n. pag). A text could equally be a whole chapter, a news item or a conversation. For a piece to be qualified as a text, Halliday and Hassan believe, it must form a “unified whole”(1). When that happens, it can then be regarded as a semantic unit.

A text is meant to have a texture. Texture, as used here, is the parameter that distinguishes a text from something that is not a text. Information in a text flows within and among sentences through the interplay of coherence and cohesion.

Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence concerns with sense in a text. That is to say that when a text makes sense to a reader or a hearer, it is said to be coherent (Osisanwo qtd. in Ogunsiji 48). Cohesion on the other hand is a Latin word for “striking together” (Stern qtd. in Ogunsiji 48). It is a term in Discourse that relates to how texts are held together lexically and grammatically as a whole. A text without cohesion is only a disjointed speech which may not generate any meaning. The following examples can be used to illustrate coherence and cohesion:

Oko slapped his wife. His wife did not cook for him. (Coherent but not cohesive).
Oko slapped his wife because she did not cook for him. (Coherent and cohesive).

Note: The conjunction “because” and the pronouns “she” and “him” in the second text are cohesive ties or devices employed to enhance coherence and cohesion in the text. They are conjunctive cohesion and referential cohesion respectively.

Oko slapped his wife because South Sudan is the newest African country. (Not coherent but cohesive).
Oko slapped his wife. South Sudan is the newest African country. (Not coherent and not cohesive).

Coherence in Discourse

Coherence in a discourse manifests by the extent to which a particular instance of language in use is able to match a shared belief, knowledge and social conventions of interlocutors in a social context. Unlike cohesion which establishes the linguistic connectivity of sentences and utterances using cohesive ties, coherence in discourse relates basically to the establishment of some relationships between utterances through an interpretation of illocutionary acts. There is an obvious manifestation of coherence in the following conversation between two interlocutors:

Speaker A: Sir, the visitors from Daura are already waiting at the reception.

Speaker B: I’m taking my lunch.

Speaker A: It’s alright Your Excellency.

The discourse above can be interpreted vis- a- vis the social conventions of interaction which include:

Speaker A requests speaker B to perform an action.

Speaker B gives the reason why he cannot comply.

Speaker A understands and proceeds to perform a legitimate action (his duty).

It is discovered that there are no cohesive ties in the above discourse but the needed cues to identify coherence are conventional structures of interaction, and this is a shared understanding by the interlocutors. That is the crux of coherence in discourse.

Context

Context is a set of facts that surrounds a particular situation. Viewed from the angle of linguistics, context means everything that surrounds the production and reception of a piece of communication. According to van Dijk,“context is subjective mental model of communicative situation” (n. pag). Communication is better understood in context. Taiwo corroborates this fact in his explanation of context and its features which include:

the physical situation in which the communication takes place, the interactants or interlocutors, the knowledge of the communicators of their cultural norms and expected behaviour, and the expressions that precede and follow a particular expression. All these features of context help language speakers to interpret meaning appropriately.(19)

Discourse dwells so much on the context of language use in social setting.

What is Stylistics?

Stylistics, in a simple sense, refers to the study of style and pattern of use by a writer or a speaker. It is the identification of patterns of usage in speech and writing (Ahmad 2). According to Ogunsiji, “Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles that are present in either a given utterance or a written text or document” (2). It is a term that is mostly associated with the literary genre but modern linguistic exercises have clearly shown that there is much of stylistic analysis to be done on non literary texts as is done on literary texts. A literary genre can be seen as style characteristics that is collectively recognized and agreed upon. Some of the aspects of literary stylistics include the use of dialogue, the description of scenes, the use of active and passive voice and the distribution of the sentence length (Ahmad 2).

Stylistics primarily attempts to explain the principles that informed the choices made by communicators which clearly manifests in their use of language. This is skillfully unraveled by the reader or writer by studying the style of the initiator of the communication (writer or speaker). Style on its own is aptly described by Lucas as “the effective use of language, especially in prose, whether to make statements or to rouse emotions. It involves first of all the power to put fact with clarity and brevity” (9). The study of style is central to stylistics. It is a selection and arrangement of linguistic features which are open to choice- a choice of words and expression by a particular person in a particular situation. One major concern of stylistics is the investigation into the continuous and consistent appearance of certain structures, items and elements in a speech utterance or in a given text. Thus, when a text is replete with some certain recurring predominant words or expressions, a stylistician becomes more interested in his investigation. Stylistics is particularly important because it enhances and maximizes our enjoyment of a text.

The relevance of stylistics can never be over emphasized. It is a technique used to explicate both linguistic and non linguistic text by objectively defining what an author does in his use of language. A stylistic analysis of a text in most cases reveals the good and or the bad qualities of a writing or speech.

Nature of Stylistics

Stylistics, according to Ogunsiji, is a “borderline discipline between language and literature”(9). This is because it focuses on language use in both literary and non literary text.

Stylistics, like Discourse, is multidisciplinary in nature, even though it has its own focus. It draws insights from disciplines such as Literature, Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy, and so on.

As earlier explained, Stylistics, majorly, is the study of style of a text. It looks at style in so many dimensions. They include:

Style as Choice: This considers style as a choice the speaker or writer makes in a text that ultimately makes his utterance or text to stand out. It becomes the responsibility of the stylistician to identify such a style in his (stylistician) analysis.
Style as Deviation:

What does not conform to a certain standard could be a style to a writer or speaker. This is mostly noticed in poetry where the poet has the poetic license to deviate from an acceptable norm to use language in a way that pleases him.

Style as Situation: A style could be adopted by a speaker or writer based on the situation in question. A text comes to life through the context or situation. This could be physical, socio-cultural or pragmatic.
Style as the Individual: There are specific features that are associated with a particular speaker or writer due to his choice of style. That becomes his ideolets. A speaker or writer stands recognized basically due to his style.
Style as Time/ Era: This has to do with time relevance of a style. It deals with whether a particular style is in vogue or obsolete; whether it is ancient or modern. It is the task of the stylistician to point this out.
Text Analysis in Stylistics

The focus of Stylistics is the text. In analyzing a text, the business of a stylistician is to look at many features of the text. Stylistic features like graphology, syntax, lexis and semantics are looked into. These are discussed under the following captions

Graphological Features

This concerns the physical appearance of a text. The primary focus here is foregrounding. That is an act of bringing to fore, certain words to give them prominence. This can be identified by looking at words in italics, capital letters, bold letters, words that are underlined, and so on. The use of punctuation marks can equally create stylistic effects. It is the task of the stylistician to explore and give description of these graphological features in a text.

Syntactic Features:

The focus here is on sentence types and the effect they create in a text. A text may contain a combination of simple, complex, compound and compound complex sentences or just simple sentences. Aspects of ellipsis, parataxis, hypotaxis, right and left- branching sentences are equally considered significant here (Ogunsiji 11). For example, a dislocation in syntax of a text could mean the dislocation in human thoughts. James Joyce’s novels are replete with this style.

Lexico- Semantic Features:

In any stylistic exercise, attention is specially given to words. This is because words may be used by the speaker or writer to produce connotative, denotative, associative, collocative, affective, thematic, idiomatic and even stylistic meanings. The stylistician watches out for the various meanings conveyed by the use of such words.

Discourse and Stylistics: Methods of Analysis

Discourse and Stylistics are two linguistic disciplines that are analyzed using different methods and tools. The text is the object of analysis for both the discourse analyst and the stylistician. One noticeable difference however is the manner in which they approach their analysis. In fact, a close study of the two methods of analysis shows that Discourse begins from where Stylistics stops. In this section, we shall attempt analyses of an excerpt from President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day Broadcast on 29^th May, 2016 from both the angle of Discourse and Stylistics in order to point out the slim line of demarcation between them.

Analysis of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day Speech

Paragraph eight:

From day one, we purposely set out to correct our condition, to change Nigeria. We reinforced and galvanized our armed forces with new leadership and resources. We marshaled our neighbours in a joint task force to tackle and defeat Boko Haram. By the end of December 2015, all but pockets and remnants had been routed by our gallant armed forces. Our immediate focus is for a gradual and safe return of internally displaced persons in safety and dignity and for the resumption of normalcy in the lives of people living in these areas.

Stylistic Analysis:

In doing a stylistic analysis of the above text, certain linguistic features such as graphology, semantics and lexis will be explored.

Graphological Features

Foregrounding is one predominant feature used in this paragraph by the speaker which is realized through a particular lexical item. For example, the first person plural pronoun “we” as used in the paragraph is a foreground. It is repeated three times in the paragraph. This is used to show that the achievement recorded so far in area of security is a collective effort by both the government and other well meaning Nigerians.

Parallelism is one vital stylistic device that is equally used to reiterate and emphasize the idea of collectiveness. The speaker willfully uses the word “we” to begin both sentence 1 and 2 to further emphasize this.

Syntactic Features

The paragraph contains five sentences with about ninety three words. All but the last sentence are simple sentences. This is a device used to enhance audience comprehension, considering the reality of the time. Of course, this was a time many Nigerians were becoming impatient with the government which had earlier promised a change in the status quo in governance. The speaker was obviously aware of this and therefore skillfully set out to use simple sentences for everyone to understand very quickly and feel, without difficulties, what the government has been able to achieve in one year.

One other device used in this paragraph is parataxis, which is an act of placing together cohesive clauses without an intervening conjunction or connective words to achieve coherence. For example:

The use of linking words like “Therefore” and “Also” to begin the second and third sentences respectively would have, possibly, been used by the speaker. His style becomes obvious by not using such linking words to tie up the three sentences which are seen to be cohesive but not coherent.

In the paragraph, there are words that are intentionally omitted by the speaker and yet the meaning is communicated. This device, which is called ellipsis, shall be discussed in detail under discourse analysis.

Lexico- Semantic Features

Collocation: A close study of this paragraph shows that the speaker chooses his words to collocate. This points out the meaning conveyed in the paragraph.

Examples:

“correct” and “condition” (Sentence 1).

“reinforced, galvanized” and “armed forces” (Sentence 2).

“tackle” and “Boko Haram” (Sentence 3).

“resumption” and “normalcy” (Sentence 5).

From the above collocative words, it can be deduced that there was a problem (represented as “condition”) that was solved (corrected) through the deployment (reinforcement and galvanizing) of the armed forces. The problem was “Boko Haram” that was “tackled”, thereby restoring (resumption of) normalcy to the nation. The meaning of the paragraph becomes so glaring due to the deployment of collocation.

Connotation: Also, the use of words like “correct”, “change”, “reinforced”, “galvanized”, “marshaled”, “defeat”, “routed”, “gallant” is highly connotative. They are military terms that show action. They remind the hearer of the military era. In fact, those words connote action put up by the government to end insurgency.

4.2. Discourse Analysis:

Cohesion and Coherence

In doing a discourse analysis of the paragraph, we shall first investigate if the paragraph passes the test of coherence and cohesion. A cursory glance at the sentences shows that they are coherent. Though there is no explicit lexical cohesion, the paragraph is however tied up by grammatical cohesion. Related ideas and thoughts are connected and tied up in such a manner that the entire paragraph presents a unified whole message. Sentence 1 establishes a point and the rest of the sentences develop and build upon it. There is a linear progression of ideas from beginning of the paragraph to the end, and that essentially brings out the beauty of cohesion. This ultimately explains government’s efforts in tackling insurgency, beginning from 29^th May, 2015 to 29^th May, 2016 (the day the speech was delivered). This exercise is, of course, a major preoccupation of discourse.

Ellipsis

Omission of some words and phrases is obviously intentional. Examples of ellipsis as used in the paragraph are:

From day one, we purposely set out to correct our condition,[…..] to change Nigeria (Sentence 1).

The phrase, “that is” is intentionally omitted, obviously to create certain effects on the hearer. This means that “to correct our condition” as used in the sentence means “to change Nigeria.”

By the end of December 2015, all but pockets and remnants […..] had been routed by our gallant armed forces (Sentence 4).

There is equally a willful omission of “of Boko Haram” in the fourth sentence. This device is used here to avoid undue repetition.

Reference

There is the use of anaphoric reference in the paragraph. Anaphoric reference draws the attention of hearer or reader to a preceding text. In this case, “all” in sentence 4 refers to Boko Haram mentioned in the preceding sentence

Revelation of Power and Ideology

The choice of words and tone of the speaker obviously unearths power and ideology. Such words as: “correct”, “change”, “reinforced”, “galvanized”, “marshaled”, “defeat”, “routed”, “gallant” connote militarist ideology of the speaker. This portrays power and essentially unveils the opaque ideology hidden in the speech. There is no gainsaying the fact that President Muhammadu Buhari has a military background, and that ultimately reflects in his choice of words.

Conclusion

Discourse and Stylistics are linguistic disciplines that analyze text in an attempt to establish principles in explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language (Ahmad 2) which, by extension, produces and reproduces meaning. Though it is a herculean task in trying to locate a demarcating line between the two disciplines, it has been discovered that they approach the analysis of a text with different, but similar, methods. While a discourse analyst approaches his analysis by looking for such things as the textuality, coherence and cohesive interplay of the text which by extension could reveal ideology and power inherent in a discourse, the stylistician on the other hand analyzes the style and pattern of language use in a text. Discourse is concerned with language in use, analysis of language in social, political, religious and cultural contexts, Conversational Analysis, Speech Acts, Co-operative Principles and so on. In a nutshell, Discourse relies so much on various other disciplines. Stylistics’ major concern is the idea of style and what informs the choice of such style. One common denominator between Discourse and Stylistics is that both have text as the object of analysis.

REFERENCES

Ahmad, Zulfiqar. “Stylistics and Discourse Analysis: A Contribution in Analysing Literature.” Academy of the Punjab in North America. Web. 20 June 2016.

Aziz, Taofik. “ENG 706: Discourse Analysis”. Department of English, University of Abuja, Abuja. 8 June 2016. Lecture.

Buhari, Muhammadu. “Democracy Day Message.” Democracy Day Celebration.

State House, Abuja. 29^th May 2016. Speech.

Fairclough, Norman. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press 1992. Print.

Fasold, R. Sociolinguistics of Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 1990. Print.

Halliday, M.A.K., & Hasan, R. Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language

in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1985. Print.

Johnstone, Barbara. Discourse Analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 2002. Print.

Lucas, F. L. Style. London: Cassell and Coy. 1955. Print.

Ogunsiji, Ayo. Literary Stylistics. Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria. Print.

Olateju, Moji. Discourse Analysis: Analysing Discourse in the ESL Classroom.

Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press. 2004. Print.

Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer. Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis. London:

Sage Publications Limited. 2001. Print.

Stubbs, M. Discourse Analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Print.

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van Dijk, Teun. ‘Discourse and Knowledge.’ European University at Saint Petersburg, Russia. 18 April 2013. Lecture.

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Contents

Issues of Bride Price in Marriage

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In the process of writing this research study, related relevant literature where reviewed. These enable the researcher to get access to work done by others. In similar topic which have gone a long way to assist the researcher to successfully carryout study.

2.1 DEFINITION OF UNSTABLE MARITAL HOME

In reviewing the relevant related literature the term “unstable home” as used in this research study referred to situation where by there is misunderstanding and constant quarrel between the married couple or husband and wife that may lead to disharmony and disintegration in the family. The modern oxford advance learner dictionary defined the term “unstable” as a state of not stable and steady on the part of a thing which is likely to fall at any moment. Thus Obadiah (1978) described the term unstable marital home as a situation which there is constant quarrel and fighting between husband and wife in an established marital home. In the light of the above ezewu (1989) explained further that reason for unstable marital home in over society could also be “ when marriage based on love and such love could be continued again, husband treated his wife badly and some other cases when a man marrying many wives or women leading to frequently lighting, and a man not having enough money to feed and clothe his family. Other cases which may bring marital home include when families split by death, desert ion in which one partner must have deserted the there for up to the period of many years and where about of such partner is know, defective home discipline a situation whereby every member of the family in marital home have the freedom to behave anyhow and the parents cannot control the, mother lacking in affection and hostile, fathers in this case o insanity of which one party between the married couple must have been of unsound mind and both the husband and wife could not live together again in an established matrimonial home.

2.3 UNSTABLE MARITAL HOME USUALLY LEAD TO DIVORCE

In a extreme cases unstable marital home at times lead to divorce among the married couple in the society especially when a marriage based on love and such love could not continued again and the husband and wife lives like cat and dogs life. There is no peace and harmony between the married couples, despite all efforts made to reconcile them in their difference and misunderstanding had failed. Thus as it is tradition of every community that when there is dispute between married couples for a fear of a break between them the two arbiters from either of the families have to be appointed so as to settle the dispute amicably and resolve their differences; it is after all this effort for reconciliation had fail and could not yield a fruitful result of that divorce could be the last option between the married couple. Thus okeke (1995) buttressed the statement further that in a situation whereby there is a constant quarrel and fighting between married, couple in marital home in the community, then in most cases it usually resulted into broken marriage or divorce. In a relate of further explanation Obadiah (1978) describe divorce as the dissolution of marriage, when a marriage is dissolved both parties shall be free from the obligation and bound of marriage. However various researchers carried out across different communities have show that marriage in a cultural setting of every community is expected to be a lifelong phenomenon, unless death parted either of married couple, if mot in a situation of divorce if resorted to by married couples because of the problems of unstable marital home, then it as its cultural and social effects and consequences and above all educational implication on the children in women day secondary schools. In this regard Ibooya (1999) states that divorce is abomination, most hateful dislike and above all against the warms and values of every community however unless it becomes inheritable that circumstances have warranted it and it cannot be helped that husband and wife must be separated because of dissolution of marriage. In the religion, both Christianity and Islam, divorce among the married couples is an act totally condemn by God. In Christianity for instance divorce among the married couple is not allowed and not authorized even through the mode of exercising it varies according to the denomination. It is totally disallowed by both the catholic and protestant church the only differences in it is that in the Anglican church, the bishop can grant divorce under very grave and exceptional circumstance as study carry out have revealed but the roman catholic mission completely prohibited divorce. In the light of the above divorce a phenomenon that is completely and totally forbidden in Christianity. In the bible Mathew 19 verse saying attribute to Jesus has been reported. As teachers in school will have many problems in trying to train these children to be good citizens. In a further related explanation the psychological atmospheric condition of the home of such as warmth love and instead the parent quarrel and always fight that brings instability in the home which go a long way to affect the emotional instability of the children as they are emotionally fragile and these problem will be carried over to the school that will also affect their performances. Thus Adeyemu (1985) explained that emotion is the mood of being conscious in which the feeling elements is predominant. It is a particular type of feeling that an individual has to a particular stimulus, provoke a person. Thus as the prevailing atmospheric condition of the home is not all that warmth, no affection and love, the parents may not be able to co-operate together to provide the much needed materials for the child to will enable him concentrate very well in his secondary education. Such as prosper feeding at home and even before going to school, provision of pocket money while going to school adequate basic requirement for education that provide an avenue for conducive learning such as writing material, text books, adequate clothing such as school uniforms and other required educational facilities. The affect will then be carried over to the school and the student’s academic pursuance in the women secondary school will be adversely affected. Adekale (2004) explain that the anxiety may then spread to the entire school situation and even transfer to ones doing of home work and other school assignment. Thus there is the problem of unstable marital home in an established family the spirit of parent to cooperate together to constantly visit the woman secondary school where their children and words are acquiring education, so to enable they have firsthand information about what is happening to their children and wards in the school as a way and process of monitoring their progress while in the school may not be there. This is very important because of their attitude of the students in women secondary school today and the rate of their irregular attendance is very alarming. Thus Yusuf (2001) state “that irregular attendance among student in women’s secondary schools is in form of student lateness and absentees are in from school regularly. In relation to this Schram (2000) explained further that “there is need for parent to presently check the school they can for themselves what their children are being taught” parents sitting down at home and wasting for their children to bring their exercise book is not enough, parents must endeavor to visit the school occasionally. In the light of the above Tugbiyele (2001) explain further to buttress this important desertion that, there is need for co-operation between the parent and all other agencies that would help in the development of education of the child while the parent are paramount. The importance of the home background on the educational pursuance of a child cannot be emphasized. Thus home background according to Crowder (1995) is described as the details that explain something of one’s family and up bringing Durojaiye (1976) contended that is a term of great importance in educational progress and its influence begins early. Thus as there is unstable marital problem from home for instance, a child is born and to be brought up where conducive home background and environment can be established for a children training, socialized upbringing and to be educated. This is due to the facts that the task of training the children so as to enable him become useful to himself and to the member of the society is enormous as both the parent and the member of his immediate circle have to make a concerted effort towards the training and upbringing of the child. Thus Omolola (2000) explained further that “the challenge of parenting is serious and highly involving. It requires mental and spiritual strength for him to be successfully, parent supposed to be resolute focused and determined”. The prevailing circumstance that surrounds a child in his home then will not give room for a parent to stand and join hand as one body in training and educating a child in secondary school as there unstable marital problem in the home a child was born and to be nature to growth. The research study carried out indicate that the interest of student may have schooling especially at the secondary school level depends on the value the parent attach to education and orientation given to a child right from his tender age about importance of education. Hence a common adage says that charity begins at home. Helen and Onasanyan (1999) states further that the home also prepares children for school but it depends on the orientation given to them. This in prepare for life in school. The family is said to be basic unit of the society. Ejikeme (1993) what goes right or wrong in the family affect the large society in a very significant way. The learning theory Brehn and Kassin (1994:355) holds that behavior is learn through observation of other as well as through the direct experience of reward And punishment. The orientation given to the student’s right from onset and importance attach to education by parents to determine whether a child will develop a positive or negative attitude towards attending secondary school where by a child will be regular, punctual and concentrate in the study of his assignment and home work and at the end, reap the benefit of his effort in education. In relation to this sharrock (1970) explain that parent relationship with their children during their secondary school years, parent attitudes to schooling and general set values at home during period all influence their children ability to profit from their education. Hence there is instability and disintegration in an established family in a matrimonial home as a result of dissolution of marriage between difficult for a parent to carry out this noble duty full in training and educating the children as expected as both couple has separated compare to the time if the two would have been together in marital home. Thus Obediah (1959) explained further that “the children may not have adequate attention may lack discipline and may not be able to profit properly from secondary education which may even develop negative attitude towards education which may even affect their performances and may become school dropout. The children from the broken homes as a result of unstable marital home may become a problem to themselves as they may not be able to profit properly from secondary education and they may letter constitute a problem to the society. Because they lack back the quality which promotes harmonious living in the society. They may become indiscipline hooligans, juvenile delinquent and what is popularly known today as “Area Boys”.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter concern with the method and procedure followed by the researcher for collecting data facts and information that cover this research study. This method and procedure is sub-divided into following heading.

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Historical Background

3.3 Population of Study

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

3.5 Instrumentation

3.6 Instrument Validity and reliability

3.7 Administration of instrument.

3.8 Method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This section deals with the techniques and procedure applied that enable the researcher to obtain data fact and information necessary to help the researcher in carrying out the research study successfully.

This study is indeed a survey kind of research. It is specifically a combination of public opinion survey and across sectional studies. It is believed that data collected could be successfully used in the analysis of the hypothesis.

3.2 The Historical Background of Bida

The ancient town of Bida is located on the latitude 9⁰:06N and latitude 6⁰:01 on the Nupe Sand Stone formation. It is located 19km south east of Minna the Niger State Capital. The town is situated in valley created by erosion and I lanzu stream, one of the tributaries of Gbako River.

The present day Bida come into existence in the 16^th century and supports a population of about two million people. And above all Bida is the traditional headquarter of Nupe Kingdom all the world. The first setter were believed to be decedents of Uggha Nafili who were said to have migrated from North-East African through Nabia and from there to the Nupe land during the period of Sahara trade. The first effective Nupe dynastic was founded by Mallam dendo a learned Fulani court adviser who rose to prominence and power after deposing Majiya the then Etsu Nupe at Raba who rutted from 1767-1777. At the death of Mallam Deando in 1832 his eldest son called Usman Zaki become the first Etsu-Nupe i.e Emir in Bida and was succeeded by Estu Masaba in 1859 and resigned for fifteen years. In 1837, Umaru Majigi become the third Etsu-Nupe and resigned for in 1884 when he finally left for the world beyond. After his death Abdul-Malik succeeded him immediately and resigned for eleven years (1884-1895). The fifth Etsu-Nupe was called Abubakar and his tenure saw crisis because of the coming of the British men through the River Niger. He resigned from the year 1895-1901 when he was finally sent to exile by the missionaries because of his uncompromising attitude towards the white men. Abubakar was immediately succeeded by Muhammad Makun who was the eldest son of late Etsu Umaru Majigi the third Etsu. In 1935, bida had its ninth Emir under the leadership Muhammad Ndayako and his regime was said to be the most successful because it brought about social and educational development. He died 1962 may his soul rest in perfect peace. The tenth Emir of Bida was Usman Sarki appointed to the throne in late 1962, the period between his appointment and the death of his predecessor witnessed a state of emergency. Usman Sarki was then immediately deposed by the people and King makers of Bida Emirate as a result of political instabilities during his tenure. He was immediately succeeded by Mallam Musa Bello as the eleventh Emir, of Bida. He died in January 1975. The year 1975 was the appointment of the 12^th Etsu Nupe Alhaji (Dr.) Umar Sanda Ndayako and led on 2003. The 3th Etsu Nupe was then appointed he is Alhaji Yahaya Abubakar who is equally the incumbent Etsu-Nupe. The indigenes of Bida are mostly muslim but still very much accommodate people of other different religions sets. Although we had initially stated that this inhabitants are Nupe, large number of other, ethnic groups of Nigeria are found and some few foreigner from both African and non-Africa countries could be seen on serious note, Bida people are industrious, law abiding citizens and also very religious. There are quite a borne water. National, electricity, telephone services, post office, commercial banks, radio stations, National Television Authority, there three institutions of higher learning in Bida namely Federal Polytechnic, Bida, Niger State Polytechnic, Bida Campus and School of Nursing Bida. Moreover, there are more than ten public secondary schools and many private secondary schools in Bida town. There are also recreational homes, gardens, clubs, parks and many others for people of all ethnic and religious groups.

3.3 POPULATION OF STUDY

The population of study as used in this research study comprises the inhabitants, natives, indigenes and residential that spread across the street avenues and residential quarters within the Suleja Local Government area of Niger State. infact, there are many streets avenues residential street that spread over the local government area. The populations in the research study also include the males and females which form the home that constitute the background of the students in various secondary schools. The population of the study in the area of the research study that is Suleja Local Government area.

3.4 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

In the process of collecting data the researcher selected (4) avenues streets and residential quarters as the sample of the study, simple random, sampling is to be used in selecting. The areas avenues street and residential quarters.

Thus nine of such areas were arranged in numbers and odd numbers i.e 1,2,5 and 7 were selected for the study. In the process the total of our four hundred (400) respondents i.e one hundred fron each of the areas is used, thus out of the sample population two hundred (200) are males and the remaining two hundred (200) are females who are the respondents which is favourable enough to give a normal expected distribution.

There are also many secondary schools that are both public and private secondary school that spread scross the local government area. A total of four (4) secondary schools were used as a sample for the research study.

Simple random sampling was at the same time used in selecting the secondary schools in the process nine of such secondary schools were arrange in number and odd numbers 1,2,3,5,and7 were equally used for the study. Thus the total of four hundred (400) respondents i.e one hundred the sample population two hundred (200) are females respectively which is also favourable enough to give a normal acquired distribution.

3.5 INSTRUMENTATION

This indicates the technique and procedure for the data facts and information obtained for an effective measurement.

The method used in collecting data facts and information would be through the use of questionnaire. The questionnaire would be used based on formulation and designing of questions that’s cover the research study to be answered by respondents accordingly.

The questionnaire used is made up of twenty items it contains two section A and B section, “A” is the respondents background information comprising sex and educational status while section ‘B” I s made up of twenty (20) items on the effects of unstable marital home on the women secondary school students performances the respondents are to indicate by ticking of appropriate edam the extents to which statement affects them.

3.6 INSTRUMENT VALIDITY AND REALITY.

The instrument used in this research study, the data and facts collection was through the questionnaire method. The instrument is valid because it measures the educational variables the researcher intended to measure. In addition, the item of question appears to deal with the relevant content as it is related to the research topic. The effects of unstable marital home on the women secondary school student performance. Thus a lot of student was carried out to determine how reliable the instrument is. The test give consisted responses indicating that the instrument is reliable. Thus, also serve as an adequate sample opinion of the respondents from the area selected for the research study on the subject matter. The variable that affects the student in their academic performance in secondary school from various home and families are the same.

This is due to the fact the student’s attitude or bahaviours and seriousness in their academic performances in secondary school depends to the large extension prevailing psychological atmospheric condition of the home such as that of the warmth love, peace and stability among the member of the family. This had made the successfully carried out this research study. The data and facts collected are reliable because the variables from the women secondary schools are the same.

3.7 ADMINISTRATION.

This refers to actual channel or process followed by the researcher to successfully carry out the research study in which data were collected that has helped in the research. The instrument used were addressed and administered on the respondent on the area school selected for the research study, in the process out of twenty (20) questionnaire distributed to parents eighteen (18) were able to be retrieved from them. This give the total percentage of one hundred and eighty (180) from the respondents to the researcher despite the repeated visit to their home within the time stipulated.

On the other hand, out of the total number of four hundred (400) questionnaires distributed to the students in order to give a favourable normal distribution all were retrieved from then within stipulated time.

The response obtained and gathered from the respondents views on the analyzed according to their opinion and views on the subject matters. The result collected was than analyzed.

3.8 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS.

This is the process the data and facts obtained and gathered from the respondents according to the subject matter where than analyzed using the percentage for the overall response and problem will be according to the section and their responses are to be arranged serially in accordance with the questions.

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Jan 23

A Morphophonological Analysis of Selected English Language Loanwords in Hausa Language

A Study Of Selected Entries From Hausa Dictionary

ABSTRACT

This dissertation examines English loan words in Hausa language and their nativisation through morphophonological processes. The contact situation between speakers of both languages through colonialism has brought about borrowing from the English language into the Hausa language. However, certain morphophonemic processes have accounted for the nativisation of such loanwords in the Hausa lexicon. The aim of the research is to examine the morphological and phonological processes that account for the domestication of loanwords from English borrowed into the Hausa language. Using morphophonemic approach as its framework, findings reveal that: insertion of extra syllables/ morphemes (Epenthesis), substitution of letters/ phonemes, deletion of letters/phonemes, shortening of long vowel sounds and metathesis are some of the morphophonemic processes that account for the nativisation of loanwords from the English language to the Hausa language.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Borrowing words from other languages is among the key attributes of growing languages. For any language that is determined to grow, borrowing is inevitable. This is why a language that refuses to borrow will likely die out as was the case of Vulgar Latin. There is hardly any language that has not borrowed from another throughout its existence. Harris corroborates this assertion by submitting that,

all languages have borrowed from other languages, though obviously not all to the same degree. Just to stay with your question, French has borrowed lots of words from mediaeval and scholastic Latin (as opposed to the “genuine” French words derived organically from Vulgar Latin), and modern spoken French has borrowed heavily from English (despite the strictures of purists). Sanskrit borrowed heavily from Dravidian. Classical Arabic borrowed from Aramaic, Middle Persian and Greek, and Modern Arabic dialects have borrowed lots of words from Turkish, French, English, and (in Iraq and the Gulf) from Persian. (8)

To illustrate the positions stated above further, the English language as an international or global language is unarguably the fastest growing language today because, apart from the fact that it came into existence centuries ago through borrowing from the Angles, Saxons and Jutes or the Scandinavian languages; it continues to borrow widely today from many languages of the world like French, Arabic, Italian, Portuguese, Japanese among others.
Harris’s view underscores the fact that borrowing sustains all languages of the world as long as

language contact is still a possibility today. Just as in Europe where languages like Germany, English, Russia among other languages are building up their word stock through borrowing, in Asia. Norman (72) opines that “Japanese and Korea continue to borrow from Chinese which has also borrowed from other smaller languages in China like Cantonese, Yue, Jin, Wu, Gan, Xiang, Min, Hakka, among others.”

In the African continent also, no language, be it major or minor can be said to be insulated from borrowing. Swahili and Arabic have borrowed extensively from both Asian and African languages especially those within the communities where they are widely spoken. Another African language that has continually proved to be a formidable competitor linguistically among the most widely used languages of Africa owing largely to its ability to borrow extensively from other languages is the Hausa language. The Hausa language has been able to maintain its position as one of the dominant languages in Africa largely due to its borrowing capacity. Although the Hausa language has borrowed from several other languages, one of its major lexifiers is the English language from which it has borrowed its vocabulary extensively. Examples of such loan English language words abound in Hausa which have become domesticated to suit the morphological and phonological systems of the Hausa language.

Colonialism and linguistic contact have been adduced by linguists like Baldesh (19) and Ogbuehi (26) as some of the factors that bring about linguistic borrowing. Historically speaking, it has been widely maintained that colonialism and trade were the major factors that connected African indigenous cultures with Western civilization. The relationship between Hausa leaders and British imperialists through the indirect rule is also believed to have developed as a result of the factors highlighted. According to Ogbuehi (26),

Many reasons that were not unconnected with eminent fear of hostility and resistance as well as lack of personnel made English colonialists to opt for that system of rule which made it easier to control Hausa States through the emirs without exhausting more resources than necessary. For communication reason, the English colonial masters had to resort to the services of intermediaries to serve as interpreters; passing information from the English colonialists to the Hausa emirs in the then traditional political system. Those interpreters were mostly bilinguals who spoke English as L2 and Hausa as L1.

This practice facilitated the process where many English language loanwords were transported to Hausa and they have undergone certain morphological changes which have also affected their phonological renditions. ¬

These morphological changes, according to Uba (234), could be in the forms of metathesis which he explained to mean the reordering of segments. For example, words like ‘christian’ becomes ‘kirshn,’ ‘flask’ becomes ‘flaks,’ and so on. There is also Epenthesis which refers to sound insertion or addition between vowels or consonants of the borrowed word. For example, ‘resignation’ becomes ‘resigination’ and ‘British’ becomes ‘Biritish’ respectively. In the case of Ecthlipsis which according to Tiffen (13) refers to the deletion of sound segment especially when they occur at penultimate positions of a word, preceded by a vowel and followed by the morpheme ‘s’. For example, ‘goods’ becomes ‘gus’, ‘minutes’ becomes ‘minis’, ‘characteristics’ becomes ‘karakteristis’ and so on. As could be noticed, ecthlipsis is the opposite of epenthesis. This means that morphophonemic analysis takes place at the levels of morphological and phonological changes respectively.

Thus, this study intends to examine some of the borrowed words of Hausa from English and analyse the possible morphophonemic changes that have taken place before their naturalization into the Hausa linguistic or communication system.

Statement of the Problem

Over the years, the Hausa language has witnessed significant growth and recognition both nationally and internationally as it assumes the position of a first, second or foreign language. Undoubtedly, this significant development cannot be detached from the “expertise” of the Hausa language when it comes to borrowing of lexical items from other languages generally, and particularly the English language to enrich its vocabularies.

The problem, however, is that most of the borrowed words from the English language into the Hausa language have hardly maintained their original forms in both pronunciation (phonology) and spelling (morphology). It is against this background that this study sets out to describe the morphophonemic factors responsible for the changes that lead to the ‘’nativisation’’ or ‘’Hausanisation’’ of certain English loan words into the Hausa language.

Aim and Objectives of the Study

This research work is aimed at exploring and analysing the morphophonological changes of Hausa loanwords borrowed from the English language. The objectives of this research are:

i. To analyse the changes in the syllable structure of the loanwords from both the donor language and the host language (English to Hausa)

ii. To investigate the loss and addition of phonemes or syllables from the donor language to the host language. (English to Hausa)

iii. To establish the factors or processes responsible for these changes that seem to affect the morphological and phonological makeup of the loans from English to Hausa.

Research Questions

In order to achieve the aim and objectives of the research, answers will be provided to the following questions which are also meant to serve as a guide:

i. Are there changes that have occurred in the syllable structure of the loanwords from the English language into the Hausa language?

ii. Have these changes affected the pronunciation of these loan words that have been brought into the Hausa language from the English language?

iii. What are the morphological and phonological factors or processes responsible for these changes that have occurred in the loan words under review?

Significance of the Study

There are a number of works and researches on borrowing from both the perspectives of sociolinguists and morphologists. Also, much has been done on morphophonemic analysis across many languages of the world. But unfortunately, as advanced and as fast-growing as the Hausa language is, it lacks literature on morphophonological analysis especially with regards to loanwords from the English language that have been ‘Hausanized.’ Therefore, this research work would be of great importance to researchers by providing some clues on investigating morphophonemic related issues or more precisely by providing clues on how to explore the link that exists between phonology and morphology of Hausa in English. This research will equally be of importance to those researchers who have a great interest in carrying out researches on issues related to language contact, language death, borrowing or adoption of loan words. Another significance of this study lies in how its findings are going to benefit linguists in general and specifically morphologists, sociologists and phonologists since it is centered on these three areas of linguistics.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

This research work focused its attention on only the morphophonological changes that occurred in the English language words which have been borrowed into the Hausa language where a detailed morphophonemic analysis of such changes was carried out. In the course of the study, the research analyzed the syllable structure of the loanwords to determine where such morphophonological changes occurred. The study also investigated some important morphophonemic changes such as the loss or addition of phonemes or morphemes in the loanwords.

Although there are numerous domesticated English language loan words in the Hausa language, this work focused on only forty of such words which were selected through the purposive random sampling technique owing to the fact that analyzing all the loan words entered into the Hausa Dictionary would have been too enormous a task for a research of this nature that is constrained by time and space.

In addition, although there are many books, newspapers and even pamphlets written or translated into Hausa from the English language which featured some of these nativised English language loan words, this research, however, concentrated only on selected loanwords found in “Sabon Kamusun Na Hausa Zuwa Turanci ” which means: “Modern Hausa-English Dictionary” compiled by Bayero University and published by the Centre for the Study of Nigerian Languages in 2006. Also, the study was limited to the morphophonemic analysis of the syllables and morphemes of the selected words. The phonemic aspects such as stress or tone will be excluded as they will not be extensively discussed in details. The fact that the study cannot account for all the English loanwords into Hausa language limits the generalization of the research findings because exceptions to whatever has been described are likely to abound.

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Oct 26

ANALYSIS OF AKACHI ADIMORA EZEIGBO’S NOVEL TRAFFICKED

Summary of the Novel

Trafficked is a novel that deals with the issues of human trade, that is, women trafficking through a series of reminiscences. Nneoma, the leading female character in the novel shows the trauma that goes with human trafficking; the deceit, the lies, the cons, and the slavery or servitude that goes hand in hand with women trafficking because they all end up as sex objects to men, in order words, the pimps use them “the trafficked” as prostitutes.

The novel which is credited with twenty-nine chapters has each chapter unfolding the stories and circumstances of each of the characters portrayed in the novel. Nneoma after a slight hiccup in her relationship with Ofomata decided to leave her home town in Ihite-Agu and upon hearing from a friend that there were teaching vacancies in the United Kingdom and that she would be introduced to the agents in charge, Nneoma went straight to her friend and they both traveled down to Lagos to meet with the agents. Six of them were chosen (all ladies between the ages of seventeen and twenty) and were flown out of the country under the guise that a teaching job awaits them. Nneoma expresses her joy and thank her ‘Chi’ at this junction but little was she to know that danger lay ahead of her. However, before they were flown out of the country they were made to swear an oath before a shrine and that, “…if we disregard the terms of the agreement, disobey them or cut links without settling our debt….” (Pg: 128).

Only when Nneoma got to Italy did she know she had been trafficked. After a period of six years of been trafficked she was caught and deported back to Nigeria where the government had made provisions for the empowerment of trafficked women through the establishment of Oasis Youth Centre for Skills Development (OYCSD) her she stayed another two years before she could summon the courage to go back home to see her parents at Ihite-Agu. During her two years stay at the centre she was trained as a tailor and she was able to get an admission into the University of Lagos to study a teaching course. The novelist through this novel is able to skillfully and tactically bring to the attention of the reader the issue of female trafficking and the inhumanity of man towards the women, the need for women to be more educated and enlightened about the issue of trafficking and the dangers attached to it, as well as understanding the process of trafficking.

At the centre of the novel is a consideration for the place and effect of parental love in the life of a child. Nneoma parents are an example in this case. Nneoma father in the person of Ogukwe Eke loved his daughter deeply and he believed that it was the spirit of his dead mother that dwells in Nneoma. Nneoma grew up a loved and cherished child in a peaceful home in which she was the third child of four children. Ogukwe who was a clerk at the Internal Revenue Department in the Ministry of Finance regarded himself as a family man, having done his best to train his children in school and provide for them and their mother. Adaeze, his wife, made more money than he does by the nature of her work which is trading and brought home more income than he did. But these things were not voiced,

“…For a woman’s wealth belonged to her husband and she could lay no claim to it at any time in her lifetime or even after she died…”

The novelist here subtly voiced out the plight of the woman in the Igbo culture which is also obtainable in other cultures as well where the woman cannot claim anything fro herself even after she laboured to acquire the wealth, she has no say in its spending, giving rise to the voiceless nature of the woman which society and culture had imposed upon her.

However, upon Nneoma disappearance from home and her elder sister Hannah religious fanaticism which led her to the arms of Prophet Elias who abused and mistreated her and encouraged her in committing outrageous crimes against Ihite-Agu shrines, completely embarrassing the family, Ogukwe still showed his love for his daughters by receiving them back with opened arms and not overtly criticizing them. The novelist through this portrayal of parental love is able to show that love stabilizes a lot of atrocities and erases pains, loneliness, and sorrow as Ogukwe and Adaeze showed their daughters that they were willing to forgive and forget.

“Every day belongs to the thief but one day belongs to the owner of the house” (Pg: 145)

This is the case with Ofomata who was regularly besieged by Dr Komolafe, a lecturer at the University of Lagos who takes pleasure in extorting money and other forms of things from his students, not only Dr Komolafe but some other lecturers in the campus was reported and had been asked to resign without much publicity being drawn to the case after a two hundred level male student set a trap for him. Ofomata, who happened to be the love of Nneoma before she fled their home town, was used by the novelist to explore the angle of corruption and bribery even in the academic world and the trauma some lecturers make students go through all in the name of passing them in the various courses they handle.

The novel goes on to tell the readers the post-traumatic implication which trafficking has on its victims and how Nneoma grew to be weary of men and most things they stand for. Through the eyes of Nneoma we are able to understand the extent of female degradation and through her plight we are able to form in our minds the question as to whether prostitution is a form of male violence against women?

Whether therefore, prostitution is a form of male violence and show of domination on women or not, the fact still remains that women from all parts of the world are being trafficked everyday to serve as prostitutes in most European countries with the lure of a better life and some are just outright kidnapping.

In all, the novel Trafficked, is a book full of the show of love, culture and tradition, education, human trafficking, and a host of other issues which has culminated together to give the work a sense of identity which is common with most of Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo works. Akachi with this book therefore has been able to portray and illuminate more on the issue of human trafficking and other elementary issues that keep a society together.Download Full Material-N5000

DISCOURSE AND STYLISTICS: METHODS OF ANALYSIS