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NEWSPAPERS COVERAGE OF ENDSARS PROTEST IN NIGERIA. A STUDY OF SELECTED NEWSPAPERS
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The capacity of the mass media to create awareness on any issue in modern society has come to be recognized. Society, therefore, depends mostly on the mass media for its information and communication needs. The functions of the media in the society have been identified as surveillance of the environment, correlation of parts of society in responding to the environment, transmission of social heritage from one generation to the next and providing entertainment (Wright 1959:9).
According to Wright, “surveillance refers to the collection and distribution of information concerning events in the environment both outside and within any particular society”. This is the news function of the mass media. Correlation includes “interpretation of information about the environment and prescription for conduct in reaction to these events. This is the editorial or opinion function of the media. Transmission of social heritage according to Wright “focuses on the communicating of knowledge, values, and social norms from one generation to another or from members of a group to newcomers”. This is the education function. Entertainment includes “communicative acts primarily intended for amusement, irrespective of any instrumental effect they might have” (Wright 1959:9).
An understanding of these functions and their discrete nature is needed by advocacy practitioners and academics to understand how the media functions. Thus, a newspaper, for example, might report a conflict news story (surveillance) and follow it with an editorial or opinion on how to stem the conflict (correlation) and feature stories on educating the public on the ultimate futility of conflicts (education) and a cartoon or illustration on the need for peace (entertainment).
McQuail quoted by Watson (2003:104-105) further explains these functions under five headings- information, correlation, continuity, entertainment and mobilisation.
Information: Providing information about events and conditions in society and the world; indicating relations of power; facilitating innovation, adaptation and progress;
Correlation: Explaining, interpreting and commenting on the meaning of events and information; providing support for established authority and norms; socialising; co- ordinating separate activities; consensus building; setting orders of priority and signalling relative status;
Continuity: Expressing the dominant culture and recognising sub-cultures and new cultural developments; forging and maintaining commonality of values;
Entertainment: Providing amusement, diversion, and the means of relaxation; reducing social tension;
Mobilisation: Campaigning for social objectives in the sphere of politics, war, economic development, work, and sometimes religion.
However, the activities of the media are carried out within certain constraints which may be socio-economic, psychological or political which affect how these activities are viewed by the society. Factors like ownership, location, orientation and the economics of media production among others may colour the role of the media in society. These conflicts of role perception have been manifested in comments on the role of the media in conflict situations. All stakeholders seem to have divergent views on the role of the media. The position of people at the helm of affairs in government was poignantly brought to the fore in 1985 by then Prime Minister of Britain, Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher told a gathering of attorneys that democracy “must find a way to starve the terrorists and hijackers of the oxygen of publicity on which they depend” (Picard 1990:314). The oxygen of publicity referred to above is a summation of the role of the media in airing the views of “terrorists” and hijackers.
In Nigeria, government officials at the highest levels consistently find the media as the culprit in the many violent conflicts that have bedevilled the nation. About a month into his appointment as National Security Adviser (NSA) to the Nigerian President, Sambo Dasuki
had already accused the Nigerian media of contributing to the security challenges of the country, “My experience with the media has so far not been a good one… In most of the places I visit, the media have been one of the problems and it is all these idea of sensational journalism that everybody wants to publish a story that is not necessarily a story, to make good headlines.” (The Punch, July 6, 2012:1-2)
Background to the study
The Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) was created in Lagos State in 1992, a time when Notorious armed robbers such as Shina Rambo were in control of the state (Midenda, 2017).
It was created as a faceless police unit that performs undercover operations against armed robbers. Within almost two decades of its creation, the unit has spread across the various states of the country. The spread of the unit across the nation without a proper structure, accounts for some of it lawless charcteristics.
The current report of police brutality using the #Endsars on Twitter has brought public attention to it. The online campaign about the police brutality is new, however, Nigerian pop stars has over the years expressed their worries, fears and incidents of police brutality.
The Nigerian movie industry, Nollywood has also portrayed cases of brutality and corruption within the Nigerian police force in their productions.Nigerians having been subjected to wanton arrests, extortion and extra judiciary killings, lunched a social media campaign using the hastag #Endsars on Twitter to put an end to police brutality.
The #Endsars campaign started with the publication of a petition by convener Segun Awosanya. It was signed by 10,195 Nigerians and submitted to the Nigerian National Assembly to scrap the police unit. The Twitter campaign started on the 2nd of December 2017, when a footage of police officers attached to the unit shot and killed a man surfaced online. The campaign became a trending topic on Twitter with over 400,000 Tweets8 within twelve hours.
In October 2020, Nigerians turned the online campaign to protest. Nigerians using 280 characters detailing their horrible and harrowing experiences with SARS, the dreaded unit of the police created to fight banditry. Before the campaign, there have been isolated cases of police brutality all over the country. However, it was during the campaign that the damage caused by such brutality was discovered.
The campaign also exposed the level of rot within the police unit according to the convener of the campaign. The campaign further revealed that the police has no recognizable structure with no organized system of operation, officers of the unit act based on self-will with little or no regards for fundamental human right for citizens especially vulnerable youth.
The sudden rise of protest movements during the recent economic crisis has brought to the fore once more the question of whether grievance theories may play a role in explaining collective action.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 5
1.3 Objective of the Study 6
1.4 Research Questions 7
1.5 Hypotheses 7
1.6 Significance of the Study 8
1.7 Scopeof the Study 9
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 9
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction 11
2.1 Conceptual Review 11
Content Page
2.1.1 Conceptual Model 11
2.1.2 Conflict: A Conceptual Clarification 12
2.1.3 News Media and the Coverage of Conflict 16
2.1.4 Peace Journalism: An Alternative Model to War Journalism 20
2.1.4.1 Criticisms of Peace Journalism and Counterarguments 24
2.2 Theoretical Framework 33
2.2.1 Agenda-Setting Theory 33
2.2.1.1 Relevance of the Agenda-Setting Theory to the Study 37
2.2.2 Media Framing Theory 37
2.2.2.1 Relevance of the Media Framing Theory to the Study 40
2.2.3 Social Responsibility Theory 40
2.2.3.1 Relevance of the Social Responsibility Theory to the Study 43
2.3 Review of Empirical Studies 43
2.4 Summary of Literature 53
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TogglePOLITICS AND THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE OF A STATE
WHAT IS A STATE?
The state has been defined by a number of political thinkers who tried their best to lead us know what the state actually men’s or stands for. Some of these definitions are as follows:
Aristotle defined a state as “a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life which we mean a happy and honorable life”.
Holland defines a state as “a numerous assemblage of human beings generally occupying a territory amongst whom the will of the majority or class are made to prevail against any of their number who oppose it.
In international law, a sovereign state is a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state.
THE CONTNUED EXISTENCE OF A STATE
The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact. While according to the declarative theory of statehood, a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to exercise full treaty-making powers and engage in diplomatic relations with other sovereign states.
EMERGENCE OF THE STATES
States came into existence as people “gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign (king, duke, prince) to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state”. States are but one of several political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues, and empires with universalist claims to authority.
WESTPHALIAN SOVEREIGNTY
Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of nation-state sovereignty based on territoriality and the absence of a role for external agents in domestic structures. It is an international system of states, multinational corporations, and organizations that began with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused. Up until the 19th century, the radicalized concept of a “standard of civilization” was routinely deployed to determine that certain peoples in the world were “uncivilized”, and lacking organized societies. That position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their “sovereignty” was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of “civilized” people.” Lassa Oppenheim said “There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is an indisputable fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon.” In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, “sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all.”
Sovereignty has taken on a different meaning with the development of the principle of self-determination and the prohibition against the threat or use of force as jus cogens norms of modern international law. The United Nations Charter, the Draft Declaration on Rights and Duties of States, and the charters of regional international organizations express the view that all states are juridically equal and enjoy the same rights and duties based upon the mere fact of their existence as persons under international law. The right of nations to determine their own political status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized.
In political science, sovereignty is usually defined as the most essential attribute of the state in the form of its complete self-sufficiency in the frames of a certain territory that is its supremacy in the domestic policy and independence in the foreign one.
Named after the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, the Westphalian System of state sovereignty, which according to Bryan Turner is “made a more or less clear separation between religion and state, and recognized the right of princes ‘to confessionalize’ the state, that is, to determine the religious affiliation of their kingdoms on the pragmatic principle of cuius regio eius religio.”
The Westphalian model of state sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the “non-west” as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics,[17] a problem that has caused some issues in the Islamic world. This system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as “separation of church and state” and “individual conscience” are not recognized in the Islamic religion as social systems.
In casual usage, the terms “country”, “nation”, and “state” are often used as if they were synonymous; but in stricter usage they can be distinguished:[citation needed]
Country denotes a region of land defined by geographical features or political boundaries.
Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, ancestry or history. However, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law.
State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory and population. Sovereign states are legal persons.
RECOGNITION
State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be either expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations.
There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal. L.C. Green cited the recognition of the unborn Polish and Czechoslovak states in World War I and explained that “since recognition of statehood is a matter of discretion, it is open to any existing State to accept as a state any entity it wishes, regardless of the existence of territory or of an established government.”
THEORIES OF WHEN A STATE SHOULD BE RECOGNIZED AS SOVEREIGN
CONSTITUTIVE THEORY
The constitutive theory of statehood defines a state as a person of international law if, and only if, it is recognised as sovereign by other states. This theory of recognition was developed in the 19th century. Under it, a state was sovereign if another sovereign state recognised it as such.
DECLARATIVE THEORY
By contrast, the declarative theory of statehood defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states. According to declarative theory, an entity’s statehood is independent of its recognition by other states.
STATE PRACTICE
State practice relating to the recognition of states typically falls somewhere between the declaratory and constitutive approaches.[27] International law does not require a state to recognise other states.
DE FACTO AND DE JURE STATES
Most sovereign states are states de jure and de facto (i.e., they exist both in law and in reality). However, a state may be recognised only as a de jure state, in that it is recognised as being the legitimate government of a territory over which it has no actual control.
REFERENCES
Glassner, Martin Ira; Fahrer, Chuck (2004). Political Geography (3rd ed.). Hoboken: Wiley. p. 14. ISBN 0-471-35266-7.
Spruyt, H. (1994). The Sovereign State and its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03356-0.
Krasner, Stephen D. (1999). Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00711-X.
Núñez, Jorge Emilio. “About the Impossibility of Absolute State Sovereignty”. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law
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27
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF SEX EDUCATION AND RAPE AMONG YOUTH IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
Rape is one of the crimes committed by man. It is a sin against humanity and is condemned in every decent human society. Legally speaking, the concept of rape varies, depending on the legal system and the value system of a society. The word rape is from the Latin word rapere, which means to take by force. The subject of the verb is sex, when this word (rapere) is applied to human being; it means to take sex by force without the full consent of the victim. Rape according to Guptas (2009) is an unlawful sexual intercourse by a man or woman under the age of 16 years or above that is against her will or her will has been obtained by putting her in fear of death or hurt. In legal terms, rape is a criminal offence. It is a crime a man commits by unlawfully or forcefully having a carnal knowledge of a woman without the consent of the victim through intimidation, force or fraud.
In many traditional societies where men are seen as superior beings, wives do not usually have the right to deny their husbands sex. Patriarchal traditional societies do not often consider what is known as marital rape to be rape. This situation in which rape moves from the purely sexual to an act of masculine expression is captured in the following words by Seifert in Onah (2011)
rape is not primarily sexual, but rather, it is an act of oppression. It is an aggressive expression of sexuality, but a sexual expression of oppression. Onah explains that in the perpetrators psych, it does not fulfill sexual functions, but it is a manifestation of anger, violence and domination of a woman, the purpose is to degrade, humiliate and subjugate her (p.61).
In the patriarchal view, women are men’s subject and must be submissive to them in everything including sex. Consequently, sex by force is not rape but a sign of men’s demonstration of their power over women. In early America, rape was seen simply as demonstration of men’s power over women. The white and the rich are not prosecuted when they rape black women because of the social structure that favoured the white race and the wealthy class. Consequently, Anne. L.B in Encyclopedia Britannica (2010) noted that rape is often explained or excused as a manifestation of racial, ethnic and class hatred or as stemming from a patriarchal system in which women are viewed as the property of men. Loys (2009) explained that “patriarchal power included sexual violence” ( p.29).
The legal definition of rape has changed substantially since the late 20th century. In the primitive world there was rarely anything like rape because patriarchal structure did not permit women’s power and opinion in sex. Consequently, they were obliged to submit when men asked for it. In line with this view, Anne .L.B in Encyclopedia Britannica (2010) opined that the traditional definition of rape was narrow with
Respect to both gender and age; rape was an act of sexual intercourse by
a man with a woman against her will. As rape is now understood, a rapist
or a victim may be an adult of either gender or a child. Although rape can
occur in same-sex intercourse, it is most often committed by a male against
a female.
It is now evident that rapists and their victims can be anybody irrespective of gender, age and race.
However, the definition of rape has been more broadened in the 21st century. Before a man sleeps with a woman outside his wife, the man is supposed to get the consent of the woman because any sexual intercourse without the consent of the girl is a full rape, to put it in another way, rape is forcefully having carnal knowledge of a girl without her consent. Eager (1989) agrees with this view when she defined rape “as taking sexual relation by force or threat without the victims consent” (p.17). Furthermore, based on the findings by F.B.I in 2012, the understanding of rape continues to broaden, with reports of same-sex rape and female rapist discovered. However, statistics still show that many rape convicts are male. According to David (2006,p.36) “Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men”. A report by CNN.com (2013) gives the statistics of rape and victims in America as follows:
In the 2001 national Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 10.2% of girls and 5.1% of boys reported “[having] ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when [they] did not want to” In a 2010 study of heterosexual couples where sexual coercion existed, 45% reported female victimization, 30% reported male victimization and 20% reported reciprocal victimization, In 2011, a study supported by a research grant from the Department of Education and Science of Spain found based on a “convenience sample of 13,877 students in 32 nations” that 2.4% of males and 1.8% of females admitted to having physically forced someone into having sex in the last year. In a 2014 study of 18,030 high school students, there was no statistically significant difference between males and females for the reported rate of having been physically forced to have sex,
This research survey shows that women are the most victims of rape while instances of male are reported.
Considerably, victims of rape are mostly minors or under age; those within age 16-18. This is probably because rape has a lot to do with force and rapist will identify their prey within this age. The people within this age are usually those they can overpower with ease. Supporting this position, Sexual Assault and Rehabilitation center (Tarma sarc,) noted that victims of rape are mostly minors and they are largely unreported. Accordingly, their statistics on rape of minors in Enugu State are as follows:
Ages between 0-5 =51
Ages between 6-10 =101
Ages between 11-13 =91
Ages between 14-17=99
Total number of raped minors are 553
Obviously, this record shows that majority of rape victims are girls and are minors. In line with this view, Bode (1998) noted that “rape is a sexual intercourse with a woman under the legal age of consent” (27). The legal age in Nigeria is from the age of 18. This is when an adult is considered liable for his/her actions in Nigerian constitution. However, it is also important to note that even old people can be victims of rape. For instance, there was the case of Mr Nnanna Osondu, a man in his early 30s from opi community in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State, who raped about five old women of about 60years to 70years. Nija.com (2013). This case makes it difficult to define rape with the age of the victim as a major index.
According to researchers, the sources of the definitions of rape are dynamic and are better defined legally in order to capture gender, age, and race. Muehlenha and Kimes (1999) averred that definitions of rape come from the law, the media, research and political activities and even within any one of those domains. Defining rape according to law, Guptas (2009,p.82) noted that “rape is an unlawful sexual intercourse by a man or woman under the age of 16years or above that is against his or her will or her will has been obtained by putting her in fear of death or hurt”.
In Nigeria, rape is a theft and is highly condemned and life imprisonment is the punitive. This is reported bellow under the federal criminal codeDownload Full Material-N5000
CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTIO
Background to the study
Constructions projects are one of the most common activities we encounter in our lives, yet it is also known as one of the most difficult humankind endeavours. As a matter of fact each project consist of sophisticated and complex processes which need to be carried out by different individuals of different professionals, who have special set of skills and knowledge. All the talent and skills have to be channelled towards a common goal to producing the project. To accomplish this goal, time and money are required. At the end these construction projects, provide us with facilities that are useful, functional, visually pleasing and enjoyable to occupy. This journey is called the project delivery process (Construction Specification Institute, 2011). Effective delivery is all about the control and management of uncertainty. Therefore one needs to identify the uncertainty related to the project and sculpt the best strategy to deliver the project so that the chances of success are increased.
Hence steering the way for accomplishing successful project is all about knowing all the tactics to tackle our way through the impending obstacles. So identifying these obstacles are crucial in order to confront them. Thereby a lot of researchers have immersed themselves in various studies to identify the causes of delay and cost overrun happening in various projects. The analyses on these factors have been carried on different contexts over a long period of time. This continuous effort on finding the causes or the factors for delay and cost overrun are more or less generated similar results and only the ranking have been swapped between the different context and time. Although the repetitiveness in this approach is observed, a change in perspective can provide an interesting insight in a common pattern in these factors. For instance, issues regarding construction materials have been highly ranked in both delay and cost overrun factors and also it is a common factor that is mentioned in almost all the research done on this area. Hence this ignites the curiosity to unfold the relationship between construction material and construction project.
The main reason for construction material to be so influential in a construction project is because the cost for material handling may range from 30 – 80 % of total construction cost (Proverb, et al., 1999).Therefore ineffective material management can cause inevitable loss for a construction project.
Material management can be considered as a prime uncertainty in a construction project. Bell and Stukhart (1986) defined materials management functions which include planning and material take off, vendor evaluation and selection, purchasing, expenditure, shipping, material receiving, warehousing and inventory and material distribution. As material management is interrelated to other processes and stages of the construction project and is dependent over various other factors it has high uncertainty. Especially the nature of construction project being fragment basis with unstructured communication and no clear responsibility between the parties, increase the challenge of implementing effective material management.
Although material management problems highly impact the construction professionals all over the world, they are more critical for Maldivian construction professionals.
Being a nation with a small domestic market; shortage of skilled manpower; difficult transport and communication and heavy dependence on imported construction material amplified this problem
Statement of the Problem
The rigorous procedure to deliver the materials to the construction site also has its own uncertainties and ambiguities. The material orders need to be quantified properly to fulfil only the present phase. Because the country is mostly described to have more sea than land therefore lack of storage space is a common problem. Without proper storage of materials it can lead to unexpected condition, which can affect the project. Therefore in this research more in depth study will be conducted to understand how materials management process practice can have an impact on the construction delivery time.
Bringing imported construction materials made-to-order for a construction project is time consuming and requires high expenditure. On the other hand those projects depending on the limited local supplier shops face the difficulty to find the right quantity and quality of materials needed for the projects. Ultimately putting the project at stake and accelerating the cost of the project. Therefore in this research a study will be carried out to explore the relationship between different material management processes practice and project delivery in terms of cost overrun and delay.
Multiple times the researchers in the field of construction highlighted the challenges that they are facing due to the imported materials, but an in-depth study has never been conducted (Rashfa, 2014). Even though fundamental discussions have been conducted to raise concern regarding construction material, no solid solution has been reached.
Aim and Objectives
The main aim of this research paper is to explore the impact of material management on building project delivery in Nigeria.
Objective of Study
The objectives of this study are:
- Examine the existing material management processes in construction projects of
- Identify the root causes of ineffective material management in Nigeria construction projects
- Explore the relationship between material management process types and project delivery in terms of cost overrun and
Research questions
- What are the current material management practices in construction projects?
- Is there any influencing factors determining material management process type?
- What are the root causes of ineffective material management in Nigeria construction projects?
- Is there any relation between the root causes and the current material management practices?
- How project delivery in terms of cost overrun and delay is related to the material management practices
Scope of work
This research paper focuses only on the construction industry of Nigeria. Moreover it concentrates specifically on building projects such as; residential and non-residential hotels, restaurants. Even though projects with various project value and size are explored in this research, a special attention to building projects in the Nigeria capital city, Male’ city is given as most of the building projects are concentrated in the urban area.
Significance of Research
The findings from this research will serve as a guideline to the Nigeria construction industry stakeholders. As a matter of fact construction material management practices in Nigeria construction industry have never been identified or recorded previously. Therefore this study will be the first to reveal the existing material management practices and the comparison between the different approaches will give the field professions a deeper insight into these practices.
Moreover this study will generate a list of root causes for ineffective material management that can be used as a benchmark to control the existing and future projects. In addition to this how these root causes are related to the current material management practices will aware the stakeholders to be more cautious.
Furthermore the most concerning issues like cost overrun and delay in terms of project delivery and its relation with the current material management practice will reveal the weakness in the current material management practices to the stakeholders.
Apart from this research being useful to the field professionals, this study will be valuable for the academicians too. As this study will serve as a support of what the past researchers have written about material management in construction projects. Furthermore it will also provide information for further researchers who are willing to investigate on this particular or similar case.
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