Sustainable Agricultural Practices for Food Security and Economic Growth in Nigeria

EXTRACTION OF OIL EXTRACTED FROM PINEAPPLE (Ananas comosus) PEELS FOR PRODUCTION OF PERFUME

This study investigated the chemical composition of the oil derived from pineapple (Ananas comosus) peels in order to discover potential applications for the oils. Significant amounts of important food commodities, as well as their parts, byproducts, and residues, have been lost and wasted as a result of increased production, growth, improper handling techniques, and inadequate infrastructure (Sagar et al, 2018). According to Pranav et al., large amounts of lignocellulosic biomass are produced annually during agricultural product production, processing, and consumption (2017). This biomass has a wide range of applications, including use as a low-cost biosorbent, a feedstock for the production of biochemicals and biofuels, and a substrate for the production of various enzymes and metabolites. Furthermore, byproducts such as fruit waste (bagasse, peel, and pulp)

 

Chapter one

After the unification of the Southern and Northern protectorates in 1914, Nigeria was able to emerge on the map as a single nation-state for the first time. This consolidation resulted in the establishment of the British method of government. Prior to the establishment of colonial administration in1914, the various areas of Nigeria had their own economies that were capable of self-generation and self-sufficiency. In order to better serve the interests of the colonial masters, the British system of government in Nigeria led to a shift in the focus of Nigerian farmers away from the production of food crops and toward the production of cash crops. This had the effect of worsening the food situation in the country. This pattern persisted in Nigeria all the way up until the country’s independence in 1960 and even after that (Hussainatu, 2008). Following the country’s attainment of its independence in1960, the Nigerian economy was subjected to numerous regimes of military administration as well as civilian rule, the culmination of which was the establishment of the current, fourth republic in 1999. The export of crude oil is the primary source of money for the Nigerian government, and the country’s economy might be described as being partly dominated by a single industry (monoculture). Because of this, the agricultural industry requires a different level of care than it previously did. It is generally acknowledged that Nigeria’s agricultural industry is a major contributor to the expansion of the country’s economy as a whole (Ogen, 2003). In spite of this scenario, the sector continues to be characterized by low yields, crude equipment, and limited areas under cultivation as a result of government neglect as a result of dependency on a mono-cultural economy dependent on oil (Izuchukwu, 2011).
The term “agricultural production” refers to the output that the agricultural sector of a certain economy generates after applying a certain quantity of “input(s)” to that sector (Fulginiti and Perrin, 1998). To give it a more official definition, it is the quantity of produce that is generated as a result of all agricultural operations in an economy during the course of one year. The first decade after Nigeria’s independence was characterized by a period in which the country’s economy was largely agricultural. This was due to the fact that agriculture was the primary driver of economic expansion at this time (Ogen, 2003). Agriculture was the leading sector in terms of occupational distribution and contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture contributed approximately 70 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employed approximately the same percentage of the working population, and accounted for approximately 90 percent of both foreign earnings and revenue collected by the Federal Government. During this time, Nigeria held the position of being the world’s largest exporter and producer of palm products, as well as the second largest producer of cocoa. Additionally, Nigeria was a significant exporter of main commodities such as cotton, groundnuts, rubber, hides and skins, amongst others (Alkali, 1997).

When taking into consideration the agricultural sector’s building roles for sustainable development, in terms of job potentials, exports, and financial implications on the economy, the contribution of the agricultural sector to the economy cannot be overemphasized. Agriculture is an important part of the Nigerian economy for a number of reasons. Not only does it lay a solid foundation for the economy, but it also serves as an import substituting sector, providing ready markets for raw materials and intermediate goods. This is in addition to the fact that agriculture lays a solid foundation for the economy. The agricultural sector makes a significant contribution to the growth of the nation’s economy in a number of ways: it raises the amount of money the government receives from taxes, it raises the standard of living, it contributes to the gross national product (GNP), it creates jobs, it helps people become more skilled, and it plays a key role in the development of manpower. Additionally, it plays a key role in the development of manpower because it is the primary source of food for people, animals, and the (Okoro, 2011).
Growth and poverty reduction are two of the most important topics that have been discussed in the development literature and thought throughout the past decade, and both of these topics have gained more attention during this time period. The new endogenous growth theory has brought to light the importance of a number of factors that are conducive to faster economic growth. These factors include human capital, infrastructure, sound monetary and fiscal policies, democracy and political stability, trade openness, and corruption, amongst others. Additionally, a significant amount of effort has been put into investigating the relationships between growth and inequality as well as poverty. This essentially macroeconomic approach to growth has placed considerably less focus on sectoral dimensions of growth and poverty reduction. This has resulted in less overall growth and more overall poverty. The absence of a sectoral emphasis, on the other hand, provides nothing in the way of concrete guidance to policymakers who are tasked with making judgments regarding the distribution of public resources as well as the sources of funding to support public expenditures. The most recent World Bank Development Report, titled “Attacking Poverty,” is notable for the very limited discussion of sectoral objectives in decreasing poverty and increasing growth. These three themes are opportunity, economic empowerment, and security. Agriculture’s relevance to the fight against poverty extends far beyond its direct influence on the incomes of farmers. Agriculture is the engine that drives the economy and offers the most promise for improving food security in Nigeria, Africa, and the rest of the globe. Millions of people have profited from agricultural growth in the form of increased income, increased availability of food at lower costs, and the generation of patterns of development that are employment-intensive and which benefit both rural and urban areas. More importantly, it has made a contribution to the economy even outside of agriculture, where growth and job creation are occurring at a faster rate, and it has caused pay levels to rise. The agricultural sector acts as a catalyst that accelerates the pace of structural transformation and diversification of the economy in the modern world. This enables countries to fully utilize their factor endowment and become less dependent on the supply of agricultural products or raw materials from other countries for their economic growth, development, and sustainability. Agriculture has the ability to serve as the economic and industrial launchpad from which a nation’s development might take off, making it an essential sector of any nation. With its reservoir of human and natural resources, Nigeria has the potentials to establish a flourishing economy and cater for the fundamental needs of the population. Nigeria is richly endowed with numerous natural resources. This enormous resource base, if it were properly managed, could provide support for a thriving agricultural sector that would be able to guarantee the supply of raw materials for the industrial sector, as well as provide gainful employment for the country’s teeming population and, as a result, reduce the level of poverty in the country (Ukeji 2002).

 

The Role Of Agriculture In Economic Growth And Poverty Reduction In Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

The cultivation of tilapias in aquaculture is a prime illustration of the success that can be achieved by a species group when it is relocated outside of its normal zone of distribution. The current contribution of the group is around 3.8 percent of the total global production of cultured fish and shellfish, which is over 40 million tonnes (FAO FishStat, 2002). The present production of tilapias from aquaculture in 2002 was approximately 1.5 million tons, accounting for close to 80 percent of the total production from all sources worldwide. It is essential to point out, however, that the culture of tilapia in Africa, particularly Nigeria, is also expanding at a rapid rate.
Before the middle of the 1990s, the amount of tilapia that could be harvested from catch fisheries was far higher than the amount that could be harvested via aquaculture. At the moment, the latter accounts for nearly two and a half times the productivity that comes from catch fisheries. From 1970 to 2002, the total amount of tilapia that was produced by aquaculture on a global scale climbed from 28,000 to 1,504 million tonnes. This increase can be attributed to the creation of superior tilapia breeds as a result of hybridization and genetic introgression, which led to the phenomenon of hybridization (Amarasinghe, 2002).
The methods used to raise tilapia around the world are quite varied, to the point where it’s possible they’re the most variable of any aquaculture species on the planet. It is a group of fish that can be cultured at many different intensities, making it appealing to people of all socioeconomic strata and allowing the culture methods to be altered to suit the economic capacities of the people doing the culture. Tilapia, also known as Oreochromis niloticus, is a kind of fish that is frequently bred in backyard or home garden ponds for the purpose of providing a supplementary source of revenue for low-income families as well as a new source of animal proteins for the household. In these kinds of circumstances, the cultured stock is frequently nourished with leftovers from the kitchen and supplemented with agricultural by-products that are easily available and typically inexpensive, such as rice bran. On the other hand, the direct nutritional value of the latter to the stock is unknown and in all likelihood relatively modest; the inputs act more as a fertilizer. This information is not available. Oreochromis niloticus is bred in waters of rather low quality, such as ponds that are supplied by sewage and primary and secondary processed waste effluents. Even though the practice has been in use since the 1930s, there have been no reports of any adverse effects on human health caused by the ingestion of fish that was raised in farms that were fed with sewage up to this point (Nandeesha, 2002).

The majority of aquacultured aquatic species have not undergone nearly as much genetic introgression as have other types of agricultural animals and plants. It is generally agreed that the accessibility of genetically enhanced seeds was the single most essential component in the green revolution, which was ultimately responsible for preventing widespread starvation in the world’s less developed regions throughout the latter half of the 20th century (Gjedrem, 2002). Gjedrem (2002) came to the following conclusion after conducting a study on the degree to which aquaculture species respond to the process of selection: the average genetic gain per generation for all ten species was 13.3 percent, with a range from 9.0 to 17.5 percent in clams and channel catfish, respectively. It was estimated that there was a gain of approximately 13.5 percent in tilapia.

While progress is being made on the production of all-male tilapia (whether through the use of hormones or genetic engineering), it is becoming more widely acknowledged that tilapia genetic resources in their natural habitats need to be preserved, wild stocks need to be protected, and an international research program on tilapia genetics needs to be established (Pullin, 1988). Pullin and Capili (1988) addressed the need for genetic improvement of cultured tilapias, particularly O. niloticus, and took into consideration the potential bottleneck effects of the introduction of tilapia to Africa. The growing interest in tilapia farming combined with the nearly universal consensus that cultured tilapia stocks required genetic evaluation and improvement resulted in the establishment of the regional research and development program known as “Genetic Improvement of Farmed Tilapia – GIFT.” This program is led by the WorldFish Centre – WFC, which is headquartered in Penang, Malaysia (then referred to as the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management – ICLARM, based in Manila, Philippines).

This genetic introgression, selection, and improvement program was based on broodfish collected from four African countries (Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, and Senegal) and four commercial O. niloticus strains (from Israel, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China, and Thailand) that were used in the Philippines. The “GIFT Fish” was the result of this program (Eknath et al., 1993; Dey and Gupta, 2000). During the preliminary stages of the investigation, it became clear that the anticipated increase in growth and survival rates would not be achieved through crossbreeding. After this, a strategy of pure breeding was implemented among the highest performing purebred and crossbred groups, which resulted in the construction of a genetically diverse base population. This population served as the foundation for the final selection program, which utilized an approach that blended family selection with selection from within families (Eknath, 1995). Following this, selection led to the development of the GIFT strain, which is said to have a cumulative genetic gain of 85 percent when compared to the original population from which it originated (Eknath et al., 1993). If the findings are not disseminated to practitioners in order to give them the opportunity to reap the benefits of the improved strain, then the task will not be finished. This is especially true in areas where tilapia culture is widespread, frequently located in rural areas, and has a very diverse range of practices.

INTRODUCTION

Agrochemicals are exceedingly dangerous and have been associated with serious issues with human health and the environment (Briggs et al, 1989). One of the major causes of ground water contamination is the extensive use of agrochemicals in agricultural areas (Singh et al., 2004) Despite only making up 20% of the world’s pesticide consumption, less developed countries are responsible for around half of all human poisonings, according to Konradsenet al. Many chemicals still used in agriculture and industry are categorized by the Stockholm Convention as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which have negative effects on human health and the environment (Ashburner and Friedrich,2001).

Consumers today demand high standards in marketed and processed foods with an emphasis especially on agricultural techniques with little to no negative environmental impact since they are becoming more and more conscious of the significance of food safety (MOA, JICA, 2004). Prior pilot studies on pesticide handling in Thailand, Guatemala, and Kenya demonstrated that the level of control increases until the product reaches the retailer’s shelf.

Food Availability AND Collaboration Techniques With Agricultural Farming Households And Individuals

INTRODUCTION

Individuals who are malnourished as a result of a lack of physical availability to food, as well as a lack of social or economic access to adequate food, are said to be suffering from food insecurity. Food insecurity manifests itself in physical symptoms caused by energy and nutritional deficits caused by an inadequate or unbalanced diet, or the body’s inability to adequately use food owing to disease or sickness.

According to the FAO (2010), food insecurity refers to the consequences of a lack of healthy food consumption, with the physiological use of food by the body coming under the category of nutrition and health. Malnutrition also causes poor health, making it harder for individuals to provide for their family. If hunger is neglected, it triggers a chain reaction that prolongs starvation, reduces parents’ ability to work and give birth to healthy children, and undermines children’s ability to study and live productive, healthy, and happy lives. This stop in human growth jeopardizes a country’s ability to flourish economically in the future.

Famine and hunger are both caused by a lack of food security. Food insecurity may be defined as either long-term or short-term. Food insecurity makes people more vulnerable to famine and hunger, and ensuring food security requires removing that vulnerability. Chronic insecurity is similar to malnutrition and is associated with poverty, which is particularly frequent in poor countries. Understanding the causes of food insecurity may help us identify solutions since no problem can be solved unless its roots are grasped. It’s difficult to discuss the causes of Nigerian food insecurity since the majority of Nigerians have lost interest in locally produced food.

40

food and consider imported meals to be superior than locally produced ones. The expansion of the oil sector, as well as the vast sums of money it produces, has shifted the emphasis away from agriculture to the point that even domestic food production is insufficient. Because oil money has moved most Nigerians’ tastes toward foreign/imported items, the government felt that importing food was better than initiating local production (FAO, 2010). Despite the aforementioned variables, the following categories may be used to classify the causes of food insecurity in Nigeria:
Food insecurity, according to the FAO (2010), refers to the effects of insufficient intake of nutritious food, with the physiological utilization of food by the body falling within the area of nutrition and health. Malnutrition also leads to poor health, which makes it difficult for people to support their families. Hunger puts in motion a cascade of events that prolong malnutrition, diminish parents’ capacity to work and give birth to healthy children, and undermine children’s ability to learn and live productive, healthy, and happy lives if left ignored. This halt in human growth jeopardizes a country’s economic development potential for future generations.

Food insecurity is at the foundation of both famine and hunger. Food insecurity may be classified as chronic or temporary. Food instability leads to a high level of susceptibility to famine and hunger, and providing food security necessitates the removal of that vulnerability. Chronic insecurity is akin to malnutrition and is linked to poverty, which is prevalent mostly in developing nations. Because no issue can be treated until its origins are understood, understanding the causes of food insecurity can aid us in finding solutions. It’s difficult to talk about the reasons of food insecurity in Nigeria since most Nigerians have lost interest in locally produced food.

40

food and perceive imported foods to be better than those produced locally. The growth of the oil industry and the enormous cash it generates has changed the focus away from agriculture to the point that even domestic food production is no longer sufficient. The government decided that importing food was preferable than starting local production, particularly because oil money has shifted most Nigerians’ preferences toward foreign/imported commodities (FAO, 2010). Despite the aforementioned factors, the causes of food insecurity in Nigeria may be divided into the following categories:

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

 

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicon L.) is a horticultural crop produced and consumed throughout the world (Nunes, 2008). Worldwide consumption is second only to potato as a vegetable (FAO, 2012; Javanmardi and Kubota, 2006). Tomato belongs to the Solanaceae family and has its origin in the South American Andes (Naika et al., 2005). Though botanically it is a berry, it is usually considered as a vegetable due to its savoury flavour.
The health benefits conferred by certain vegetables and fruits have been the result of the presence of health-promoting phytochemicals with potent antioxidant properties such as carotenoids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, tocopherols, and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Ripened fruit of tomato (Solanum lycopersicon L.) contains significant amounts of these compounds and are the principal dietary source of the carotenoid lycopene in the human diet (Giovannucci, 2002).
Tomato fruits are versatile; they can be consumed fresh in salads or cooked in sauces, soups and meat or fish dishes. They can be processed into purées, juices, ketchup, powders, canned whole or chopped.
Tomatoes contribute to a healthy, well-balanced diet. The fruit is mainly composed of water, soluble and insoluble solids (Nikbakht et al., 2011; Pedro and Ferreira, 2007). Total solids are the summation of soluble and insoluble solids with soluble solids made up of mainly sugars, like sucrose and fructose, and salts and the insoluble solids mainly constituted by fibres, such as cellulose and pectin (Pedro and Ferreira, 2005). Usually, excluding seeds and skin, tomato presents 4.5-8.5% total solids, depending on variety, soil and climatic conditions (Pedro and Ferriera, 2005).
Tomato contains organic acids (mostly citric acid) and such micronutrients as carotenoids, and vitamins A and C (Nikbakht et al., 2011; Pedro and Ferreira, 2007). They are also rich in minerals, essential amino acids, sugars and dietary fibres. Tomato contains much vitamin B, E and K, iron and phosphorus.

As a tomato fruit ripens, its colour changes from green in the immature fruit to deep dark red in the fully mature fruit. Most of the orange, yellow and red colours of leaves, fruits and flowers are due to carotenoids. Carotenoids, such as beta-carotene and lycopene, are important components of antioxidant defence against lipid peroxidation in living cells (Bunghez et al., 2011). They are essential nutrients in the human diet that are thought to provide health benefits by decreasing the risk of various diseases, particularly certain cancers, cardiovascular and eye diseases.
In tomato, fruit quality is an important factor that contributes to consumer acceptability. In addition to colour and firmness, measurements of acidity, total soluble solids content, and sugar-to-acid ratio, are factors that are used to select desirable sweet and sour flavour attributes in tomato fruit (Nikbakht et al., 2011; Shao et al., 2007).
Tomato is considered a low-high acid food with a pH value of between 3.7- 4.5.The pH of a food is one of several important factors that determines the survival and growth of microorganisms during processing, storage and distribution, thus the final safety of the food product. Therefore, determining the pH of foods helps to prevent product deterioration and spoilage. Canned and dried tomatoes are economically important processed products (Naika et al., 2005).

PROBLEM STATEMENT

As a whole product, tomato maintains a delicate tissue structure that is extremely susceptible to chilling injury, mechanical damage and the presence of microorganisms. It is highly perishable with shelf life stability ranging from three days to three weeks depending on the time of harvest and/or variety (Prakash et al., 2002; Ellis et al., 1998). Kader (1992) stated that post – harvest losses in tomato as a result of improper storage and handling are enormous and can range from 20-50 % in developing countries.

In Nigeria availability of tomato fruit on the market is variable depending on the season and hence, the inability to meet manufacturing demands and an all-year-round production of the fruit for consumers. Market women usually display the fruits on table tops, in plastic baskets or wooden boxes and leave them in the sun till the close of day. This renders the fruit short-lived, due to the action of microorganisms and the inappropriate storage conditions under which the fruits are kept. During the peak seasons, the problem of glut sets in due to lack of appropriate methods/facilities for long term preservation of the fruits in their unprocessed state. Shortages of fresh tomato fruits occur during the lean season immediately following the glut, leading to a rise in the price of the fruit. Consequently, Ghana imports tomato fruits from neighbouring countries.
The shelf life, fruit quality characteristics as well as the optimum storage conditions and post – harvest treatment of common tomato fruits in Nigeria need to be identified to curb the problem of postharvest losses. Irradiation has been known to inhibit microbial growth, delay ripening and extend the shelf life of minimally processed fruits and vegetables (Prakash et al. 2002; Hagenmaier and Baker, 1998). In addition edible coatings create a modified atmosphere within the fruit and thus help to preserve it for a longer time. Calcium chloride has been proven to reduce post – harvest decay, controls the development of physiological disorders, and improves quality and delay aging or ripening (Stanly et al., 1995). Low temperature is also effective in delaying the onset of senescence and decay.

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP, CONDITION FACTOR AND GROWTH OF NILE  TILAPIA

 

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Fish were the first vertebrate animals to evolve and have since given rise to all the vertebrate animals found in water and on land. Fossils of fish have been dated back to the Cambrian period around 530 million years ago during a time when the diversity on Earth was going through a massive explosion. Currently, there are more than 30,000 species found around the world with the largest diversity found in coral reefs in the world’s tropical regions.

Tilapia is a large genus in the cichlid family (Cichlidae) comprising of 1,524 species (Eli, 2005). It inhabits a variety of fresh water habitats, including shallow streams, ponds, rivers and lakes. According to Fessehaye et al. (2006), Tilapia is the fifth most important fish in fish farming, with production reaching 1,505,804 metric tons in the year 2000. In 2000 to 2010, Tilapia production increased from 1.27 million metric tons to 3.4 million metric tons.  Because of their large size, rapid growth, and palatability, tilapia cichlids are the focus of major farming efforts and research, specifically various species of Oreochromis, Sarotherodon, and Tilapia, collectively known as tilapias.

Tilapia has wide geographical distribution in a lot of natural or artificial water reservoirs in many countries especially those having tropical climates.  However, most of the world’s farmed  fish production come from developing countries (FAO, 2006; Gil, 2007).The major producing country was China (over 50 percent) followed by Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, Egypt,

Taiwan, Brazil, Colombia and Malaysia. Other countries with notable production were the USA,

Israel, Cuba, Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Nigeria (Roderick, 2001). According to Fagbenro et al., 2010, Nigeria is the second largest producer of farm-raised tilapias in Africa, after Egypt. Tilapias are widely cultivated in ponds, reservoirs and cages in Nigeria (Fagbenro et al., 2004) and are suited to low-technology farming systems because of their fast growth rate, efficient use of natural aquatic foods, propensity to consume a variety of supplementary feeds, omnivorous food habits, resistance to disease and handling, ease of reproduction in captivity, and tolerance to wide ranges of environmental conditions (Fagbenro, 1987). Tilapia is also identified under a number of different generic names; it can be called “carpe” in West Africa, “St. Peter’s Fish in Israel, “bream” in Southern Africa, “mojarra” in Latin America.

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is an important fish in the ecology of tropical and sub-tropical region including Nigeria and of great commercial importance in the fisheries in many African lakes (Britton and Harper, 2008). It is also the most popular species of the bony fish for aquaculture   in Africa (Abdel et al., 2007).  This is attributed to many positive qualities including tolerance to poor water quality, wide range of food, and plasticity in growth, firm flesh and good taste (Fryer and Iles, 1972).

Brief History of Tilapia

Tilapia was a symbol of rebirth in Egyptian art, and was in addition associated with Hathor. It was also said to accompany and protect the sun god on his daily journey across the sky. Tilapia painted on tomb walls, reminds us of spell 15 of the Book of the Dead by which the deceased hopes to take his place in the sun boat: “You see the tilapia in its [true] form at the turquoise pool”, and “I behold the tilapia in its [true] nature guiding the speedy boat in its waters.”

Tilapia were one of the three main types of fish caught in Talmudic times from the Sea of Galilee, specifically the Galilean comb (Sarotherodon galilaeus). Today, in Modern Hebrew, the fish species is called amnoon (suggested derivative: am “mother” + noon “fish”). In English, it is sometimes known by the name “St. Peter’s fish”, which comes from the story in the Gospel of Matthew about the apostle Peter catching a fish that carried a coin in its mouth, though the passage does not name the fish. While the name also applies to Zeus faber, a marine fish not found in the area, a few tilapia species (Sarotherodon galilaeus, Oreochromis aureus , Coptodon zillii and Tristramella) are found in the Sea of Galilee, where the author of the Gospel of Matthew recounts the event took place. These species have been the target of small-scale artisanal fisheries in the area for thousands of years.

The common name ’tilapia’ is based on the name of the cichlid genus Tilapia, which is itself a latinization of tilapia, the Tswana word for “fish”. Scottish zoologist Andrew Smith named the genus in 1840. Tilapia is the official fish of the state of India.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Tilapia is the generic name of a group of cichlids endemic to Africa. The group consists of three aquaculturally important genera Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and Tilapia. Several characteristics distinguish these three genera, but possibly the most critical relates to reproductive behaviour. All tilapia species are nest builders; fertilized eggs are guarded in the nest by a brood parent. Species of both Sarotherodon and Oreochromis are mouth brooders; eggs are fertilized in the nest but parents immediately pick up the eggs in their mouths and hold them through incubation and for several days after hatching. In Tilapia species only females practice mouth brooding, while in Sarotherodon species either the male or both male and female are mouth brooders.

During the last half century fish farmers throughout the tropical and semi-tropical world have begun farming tilapia. Today, all commercially important tilapia outside of Africa belong to the genus Oreochromis, and more than 90 percent of all commercially farmed tilapia outside of Africa are Nile tilapia. Less commonly farmed species are Blue tilapia (O. aureus), Mozambique tilapia (O. Mossambicus) and the Zanzibar tilapia (O. urolepis hornorum). The scientific names of tilapia species have been revised a lot in the last 30 years, creating some confusion.

Tilapia is a common name that is now applied to several genera and species of fish that were formerly classified in the genus Tilapia, in the Family Cichlidae. In the reclassification scheme developed by Trewavas (1983) the several hundred species of Tilapia were split into three genera, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and some remained as Tilapia.

The preferred scientific name is Tilapia zilli, the preferred English common name is Cichlid while the local common name for tilapia in Hausa language which is the main spoken language in Wudil and Kano State at large is “Karfasa”.

Below shows the taxonomic tree of Tilapia zilli

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Animalia

Sub-Kingdom: Metazoa

Phylum: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Class: Actinopterygii

Order: Perciformes

Family: Cichlidae

Genus: Tilapia

Species: T.zilli

Physical Characteristics

Tilapia typically have laterally compressed, deep bodies. Like other cichlids, their lower pharyngeal bones are fused into a single tooth-bearing structure. A complex set of muscles allows the upper and lower pharyngeal bones to be used as a second set of jaws for processing food (cf. morays ), allowing a division of labor between the “true jaws” (mandibles ) and the ” pharyngeal jaws “. This means they are efficient feeders that can capture and process a wide variety of food items. Their mouths are protrusible, usually bordered with wide and often swollen lips. The jaws have conical teeth. Typically, tilapia have a long dorsal fin, and a lateral line which often breaks towards the end of the dorsal fin, and starts again two or three rows of scales below. Some Nile tilapia can grow as long as 2.0 ft.

Other than their temperature sensitivity, tilapias exist in or can adapt to a very wide range of conditions. An extreme example is the Salton Sea, where tilapias introduced when the water was merely brackish now live in salt concentrations so high that other marine fish cannot survive.

Tilapia are also known to be a mouth-brooding species, which means they carry the fertilized eggs and young fish in their mouths for several days after the yolk sac is absorbed.

Tilapia are shaped much like sunfish or crappie but can be easily identified by an interrupted lateral line characteristic of the Cichlid family of fishes. They are laterally compressed and deep-bodied with long dorsal fins. The forward portion of the dorsal fin is heavily spined. Spines are also found in the pelvis and anal fins. There are usually wide vertical bars down the sides of fry, fingerlings, and sometimes adults.

REPRODUCTION

In all Tilapia species, the male excavates a nest in the pond bottom (generally in water shallower than 3 feet) and mates with several females. After a short mating ritual the female spawns in the nest (about two to four eggs per gram of brood female), the male fertilizes the eggs, and she then holds and incubates the eggs in her buccal cavity until they hatch. Fry remain in the mouth of the through yolk sac absorption and often seek refuge in her mouth for several days after they begin to feed.

Sexual maturity in tilapia is a function of age, size and environmental conditions. The Mozambique tilapia reaches sexual maturity at a smaller size and younger age than the Nile and Blue tilapias. Tilapia populations in large lakes mature at a later age and larger size than the same species raised in small farm ponds. For example, the Nile tilapia matures at about 10 to 12 months and 3/4 to 1 pound (350 to 500 grams) in several East African lakes. Under good growth conditions this same species will reach sexual maturity in farm ponds at an age of 5 to 6 months and 5 to 7 ounces (150 to 200 grams). When growth is slow, sexual maturity in Nile tilapia is delayed a month or two but stunted fish may spawn at a weight of less than 1 ounce (20 grams). Under good growing conditions in ponds, the Mozambique tilapia may reach sexual maturity in as little as 3 months of age, when they seldom weigh more than 2 to 4 ounces (60 to 100 grams). In poorly fertilized ponds sexually mature Mozambique tilapia may be as small as 1/2 ounce (15 grams).

Fish farming strategies that prevent overcrowding and stunting include: 1) cage farming where eggs fall through the mesh to the pond bottom before the female can collect them for brooding;  2) polyculture with a predator fish, such as fingerling largemouth bass, at 400 per acre; and  3) culture of only males (monosex). All-male culture is desirable in ponds not only to prevent overpopulation and stunting but as fast as females. Methods of obtaining predominately male fish include: 1) manually separating the sexes based on visual examination of the genital papilla of juvenile fish ( hand-sexing); 2) hybridizing between two selected species that produce all-male offspring (for example, Nile or Mozambique females crossed with Blue or Zanzibar males); 3) feeding a male hormone-treated feed to newly hatched fry for 3 to 4 weeks to produce reproductively functional males (sex reversal); or 4) YY male technology (currently under development and not yet a commercial option).

The sex of a 1-ounce (25-gram) tilapia fingerling can be determined by examining the genital papilla located immediately behind the anus. In males the genital papilla has only one opening (the urinary pore of the ureter) through which both milt and urine pass. In females the eggs exit through a separate oviduct and only urine passes through the urinary pore. Placing a drop of dye (methylene blue or food coloring) on the genital region helps to highlight the papilla and its openings.

FEEDING BEHAVIOR AND NUTRITION REQUIREMENTS

Tilapia ingest a wide variety of natural food organisms, including plankton, some aquatic macro aquatic invertebrates, larval fish, detritus, and decomposing organic matter. With heavy supplemental feeding, natural food organisms typically account for 30 to 50 percent of tilapia growth. (In supplementally fed channel catfish only 5 to 10 percent of growth can be traced to ingestion of natural food organisms.) Tilapias are often considered filter feeders because they can efficiently harvest plankton from the water. However, tilapias do not physically filter the water through gill rakers as efficiently as true filter feeders such as gizzard shad and silver carp. The gills of tilapia secrete a mucous that traps plankton. The plankton-rich mucous, or bolus, is then swallowed. Digestion and assimilation of plant material occurs along the length of the intestine (usually at least six times the total length of the fish). The Mozambique tilapia is less efficient than the Nile or Blue tilapia at harvesting planktonic algae.

Two mechanisms help tilapia digest filamentous and planktonic algae and succulent higher plants: 1) physical grinding of plant tissues between two pharyngeal plates of fine teeth; and 2) a stomach pH below 2, which ruptures the cell walls of algae and bacteria. The commonly cultured tilapias digest 30 to 60 percent of the protein in algae; blue-green algae is digested more efficiently than green algae.

When feeding, tilapias do not disturb the pond bottom as aggressively as common carp. However, they effectively browse on live benthic invertebrates and bacteria-laden detritus. Tilapias also feed on midwater invertebrates. They are not generally considered piscivorous, but juveniles do consume larval fish. In general, tilapias use natural food so efficiently that crops of more than 2,700 pounds of fish per acre (3,000 kg/ha) can be sustained in well-fertilized ponds without supplemental feed. The nutritional value of the natural food supply in ponds is important, even for commercial operations that feed fish intensively.

In heavily fed ponds with little or no water exchange, natural food organisms may provide one-third or more of total nutrients for growth. In general, tilapia digest animal protein in feeds with an efficiency similar to that of channel catfish, but are more efficient in the digestion of plant protein, especially more fibrous materials.

Tilapia require the same ten essential amino acids as other warm water fish, and, as far as has been investigated, the requirements for each amino acid are similar to those of other fish. Protein requirements for maximum growth are a function of protein quality and fish size and have been reported as high as 50 percent of the diet for small fingerlings. However, in commercial food fish ponds the crude protein content of feeds is usually 26 to 30 percent, one-tenth or less of which is of animal origin. The protein content and proportion of animal protein may be slightly higher in recirculating and flow-through systems.

The digestible energy requirements for economically optimum growth are similar to those for catfish and have been estimated at 8.2 to 9.4 kcal DE (digestible energy) per gram of dietary protein. Tilapia may have a dietary requirement for fatty acids of the linoleic (n-6) family. Tilapia appear to have similar vitamin requirements as other warm water fish species. Vitamin and mineral premixes similar to those added to catfish diets are usually incorporated in commercial tilapia feeds. The feeding behavior of tilapia allows them to use a mash (unpelleted feeds) more efficiently than do catfish or trout, but most commercial tilapia feeds are pelletized to reduce nutrient loss. In the absence of feeds specifically prepared for tilapia, a commercial catfish feed with a crude protein content of 28 to 32 percent is appropriate in the United States.

ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

Tilapia are more tolerant than most commonly farmed freshwater fish to high salinity, high water temperature, low dissolved oxygen, and high ammonia concentrations.

Salinity

All tilapia are tolerant to brackish water. The Nile tilapia is the least saline tolerant of the commercially important species, but grows well at salinities up to 15 ppt. The Blue tilapia grows well in brackish water up to 20 ppt salinity, and the Mozambique tilapia grows well at salinities near or at full strength seawater. Therefore, the Mozambique tilapia and some mossambicus derived red tilapia are preferred for saltwater culture.

Some lines of the Mozambique tilapia reportedly have spawned in full strength seawater, but its reproductive performance begins to decline at salinities above 10 to 15 ppt. The Blue and Nile tilapias can reproduce in salinities up to 10 to 15 ppt, but perform better at salinities below 5 ppt. Fry numbers decline substantially at 10 ppt salinity.

Water Temperature

The intolerance of tilapia to low temperatures is a serious constraint for commercial culture in temperate regions. The lower lethal temperature for most species is 50 to 52o F for a few days, but the Blue tilapia tolerates temperatures to about 48o F.

Tilapia generally stop feeding when water temperature falls below 63^o F. Disease-induced mortality after handling seriously constrains sampling, harvest and transport below 65o F. Reproduction is best at water temperatures higher than 80o F and does not occur below 68^o F. In subtropical regions with a cool season, the number of fry produced will decrease when daily water temperature averages less than 75^o F. After 16- to 20day spawning cycles with 1/2- pound Nile tilapia, fry recovery was about 600 fry per female brooder at a water temperature of 82^o F, but only 250 fry per female at 75o F.

Optimal water temperature for tilapia growth is about 85 to 88^o F. Growth at this optimal temperature is typically three times greater than at 72o F.

Dissolved oxygen concentration

Tilapia survive routine dawn dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations of less than 0.3 mg/L, considerably below the tolerance limits for most other cultured fish. In research studies Nile tilapia grew better when aerators were used to prevent morning DO concentrations from falling below 0.7 to 0.8 mg/L (compared with unaerated control ponds). Growth was not further improved if additional aeration kept DO concentrations above 2.0 to 2.5 mg/L.

Although tilapia can survive acute low DO concentrations for several hours, tilapia ponds should be managed to maintain DO concentrations above 1 mg/L. Metabolism, growth and possibly, disease resistance are depressed when DO falls below this level for prolonged periods.

pH

In general, tilapia can survive in pH ranging from 5 to 10 but do best in a pH range of 6 to 9.

AMMONIA

Massive mortality of tilapia occurs within a few days when fish are suddenly transferred to water with unionized ammonia concentrations greater than 2 mg/L. However, when gradually acclimated to sublethal levels, approximately half the fish will survive 3 or 4 days at unionized ammonia concentrations as high as 3 mg/L. Prolonged exposure (several weeks) to un-ionized ammonia concentration greater than 1 mg/L causes losses, especially among fry and juveniles in water with low DO concentration. The first mortalities from prolonged exposure may begin at concentrations as low as 0.2 mg/L. Un-ionized ammonia begins to depress food consumption at concentrations as low as 0.08 mg/L.

Nitrite

Nitrite is toxic to many fish because it makes the hemoglobin less capable of transporting oxygen; chloride ions reduce the toxicity. Tilapia are more tolerant of nitrite than many cultured freshwater fish. When dissolved oxygen concentration was high (6 mg/L) and chloride concentration was low (22 mg/L), the nitrite concentration at which 50 percent of the fish died in 4 days was  89 mg/L as nitrite. In general, for freshwater culture the nitrite concentration should be kept below 27 mg/L as nitrite. As a safeguard against nitrite toxicity in recirculating systems, chloride concentrations are often maintained at 100 to 150 mg/L chloride.

Diseases

Tilapia are more resistant to viral, bacterial and parasitic diseases than other commonly cultured fish, especially at optimum temperatures for growth. Lymphocystis, columnaris, whirling disease, and hemorrhagic septicemia may cause high mortality, but these problems occur most frequently at water temperatures below 68^o F. Ich, caused by the protozoan Ichthyopthirius multifiliis, can cause serious losses of fry and juveniles in intensive recirculating systems.

External protozoans such as Trichodina and Epistylis also may reach epidemic densities on stressed fry in intensive culture. In recent years the bacterial infection Steptococcus inae has caused heavy losses, primarily in recirculating and intensive flow-through systems.

1.2  STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Tilapia is a common species of fish harvested at river Wudil, Kano State. Some harvest them for consumption while some for fish farming. It is therefore desirable to have an idea on the size of a tilapia that has actually reached maturity or ready for harvest, their kinds of feeds, growth pattern and as well how and what they need to reproduce successfully. This study will give researchers and fish farmers’ information important for careful selection and on the general life of tilapia species.

INTRODUCTION

According to Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report (2015) analysis of survey data showed that many countries exhibited persisting rates of part time work by students. This is despite the increased school coverage seen in many countries. The report pointed out that substantial proportion of adolescents continued working alongside their normal schooling activities. For example, in Cameroon, about 70 per cent of students aged 12 to 14 worked in 2001 with little change observed by 2011.

In a study carried out in Thailand by the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 2013, half of those engaged in fishing ranged between the age of 18-28 years old and of a particular note of the sample population was the presence of seven fishers that were below age of 15 and 26 fishers that were between 15 to 17 years of age. The report established that majority of the fishers studied, had little in the way of education with 58 percent interviewed having utmost five years of formal schooling, and only a small proportion had completed secondary school education.

The effect of climate change on rice production in Enugu State, Nigeria

 

ABSTRACT

This study analyzes the effect of climate change on rice production in Adamawa State, Nigeria. The study describes the trend in rice production and determines the factors affecting the output of rice in Adamawa. Secondary data from 1990-2015 was used. The analytical tools used were descriptive analysis, unit root and regression analysis. The result of the study reveals that there is variation in the trend of the climatic factors affecting rice production in Adamawa State. The findings reveal that rainfall and minimum temperature are the major climatic factors that affect the rice production; such that 1% increase in rainfall leads to 22.2% increase in rice production and 1% increase in minimum temperature leads to 3.7% reduction in rice production. Therefore rainfall is found to be positively significant to rice output, while minimum temperature is found to be negatively significant. The study therefore recommends that irrigation facilities should be built, especially in the north where drought threatens food production. Also breeders should develop rice varieties that have less gestation period and can survive high temperature.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change refers to any variation in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, 2001a; 2001b). Climate change in the form of higher temperatures, reduced rainfall and increased rainfall variability, reduces crop yields and net farm revenues, and threatens food security in low income based economies, including African countries (FAO, 2007). At the recently concluded 10th Session of IPCC WG II and 38th Session of IPCC in Yokohama, Japan, the world was warned that climate change impacts are leading to shifts in crop yields, decreasing yields overall and sometimes increasing them in temperate and higher latitudes… In light of these, some indigenous communities are changing seasonal migration and hunting patterns to adapt to changes in temperature (IPCC, 2014).

According to Shah et al (2009) the adverse consequences of climate change will take an irreplaceable toll on food production and food security especially in developing countries which have a low capacity to cope and adapt to these challenges. Evidence from Singh et al (1997) confirmed the effects of climate change on farm net revenue in different parts of the globe through rainfall and temperature variability. These probably underlie the reason why International Food Policy Institute’s 2013 Global Food Policy Report observed that current discussions on the post-2015 agenda are emphasizing the need to expand beyond the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by incorporating climate change alongside urbanization, conflict, and sustainable consumption and production patterns into the development framework. With nearly 6% of Nigeria’s population dependent on agriculture and the sector contributing nearly 40% of the country’s GDP, Nigeria remains vulnerable to climatic variability and long term climate change (Ajetomobi et al, 2010).

 

Unfortunately, credible reports from Nigerian Metrological Agency, NIMET (2012a) did not offer much hope. The report indicated that Nigerian climate had shown considerable temporal and spatial shifts in its variability and change, making extreme climate and weather event (drought, flood, heat waves, ocean surges, etc.) a more regular event, exemplified by destructive flood of 2012 which occurred in many parts of Nigeria. Eboh et al (2006) observed that, while data limitations made it difficult to estimate cost of possible crop land degradation, the historic crop yield data showed that economic cost of degradation and poor management of renewable natural resources was at least 6.4% of GDP in Nigeria.

 

They found that the annual cost of yield decline as a result of environmental or land degradation from 1995-2004 in Nigeria was estimated at 1.6 billion dollar. More than 60% of this cost was attributed to roots and tubers. The economic effects of the climate change at the micro enterprise level can be gleaned from effects on farm net revenues which are the focus of this study. In a similar way, IPCC (2014) warned that climate change adaptation could cost $100 billion globally. The emphasis is on smallholder farmers since they dominate the Nigerian agricultural sector, engaging about 65% of the population and contributing between 30-40% of the nations’ GDP (Ajetomobi et al, 2010). Morton (2007) noted that although climate change issues were recently receiving a lot of empirical and documentary attention, especially as they affect rural areas of developing countries, there have been relatively insufficient discussions concerning the impact of climate on agriculture, specifically in the area of smallholder and subsistence systems. Most studies that have addressed the issues (e.g. Enete et al, 2011; Umoh and Eketekpe, 2010) were either too location specific, used qualitative approach or just reviewed related literature only. The study’s focus on staple crops (especially rice, yam, cassava, cowpea and maize) was instructive. IFPRI and Nigerian Strategy Support Programme’s report indicated that despite the fact that cereals, roots and tubers dominated Nigerian crop production at a time when the country was the world’s leading producer of cassava, yams and cowpea, their productivities were still below potential yields while profitability varied across three broad agro-ecological zones. IFPRI (2009) also asserted that Nigeria was characterized by high reliance on food imports amidst growing level of malnutrition across the country, with rural areas being especially vulnerable to chronic food shortages, malnutrition, unbalanced nutrition, erratic food supply, poor quality foods, high food costs and even total lack of food. This situation can be exacerbated by risks of climate change if Nigeria remains aloof. The variation in weather and climate has led to a lot of devastating consequences and effects in various parts of the country (Kebbeh et al, 2003).

These include flooding, deforestation, desertification, erosion, drought, sea level rise, heat stress, pests and diseases, erratic rainfall patterns, and land degradation. More specifically, the South-South geopolitical zone is mainly affected by sea level rise and deforestation induced changes; SouthEast by erosion, flooding and land degradation; North-Central by changes due to devegetation and over-grazing; North-East by drought, desertification and heat stress, and North-West also by drought, desertification and heat stress (Ozor, 2009). The centrality of agriculture to Developing Economies (DEs) is not in dispute (Umoh, 2003). Nigeria, with over 140 million inhabitants, constitutes about a quarter of Africa’s total population. Agriculture is the largest sector of economy, providing about two-third of the nation’s workforce (NBS, 2007a). In spite of this, Nigeria faces acute shortage of food as a result of its low agricultural productivity (Ukwu et al, 2003). This shortage, which varies seasonally or yearly, is reflected in the quantity of food made available for consumption by Nigerians. Rice remains an important component of that quantity; a major arable crop grown in Nigeria where supply is still considered insufficient to match the consumption increase (NBS, 2007a). Agriculture had its effect on climate change just as climate change had on agriculture. According to Sauchyn and Kulshreshtha (2008), agriculture sources such as animal husbandry, manure management and agricultural soils account for about 52% of global nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. Climate change is a global crisis – the inter-governmental panel on climate change estimates that there will be increase in global mean temperature of about 1°C above the present value by the year 2025 and 3°C before the end of next century (IPCC, 2002). Some of the critical challenges that agriculture will face under climate changes are obvious. Many of them are the amplification of the substantial challenges that the current climate already imposes; water availability is at the top of the list.

Water is already scarce in many regions, increasing demand and competition for water will combine with changing and less predictable rainfall and river flows (USAID, 2008). In Africa, where so many people rely directly on the rain for their foods and livelihoods, any changes in rainfall present a major risk. Indeed the IPCC’s fourth assessment report suggest that some African countries may see yields from rain fed agriculture fall by as much as 50% by 2020, if production practices remain unchanged (IPCC 2002).

Aims and Objectives of the Study

The study seeks to achieve the following objectives:

1. to examine the trend of climate change in the study area from 1990-2015,
2. to describe the rice production trend in Adamawa,
3. to analyze the effect of climate change on rice production.