There are many different types of bacteria that can be associated with raw and cooked fish. Some of the most common ones include:

1. Vibrio parahaemolyticus: This is a bacteria that is commonly found in seawater and can be present in raw or undercooked seafood, particularly in warm water areas.
2. Salmonella: This is a bacteria that can be found in raw or undercooked fish and seafood, particularly in freshwater fish.
3. Listeria monocytogenes: This is a bacteria that can be found in raw or cooked fish and seafood, particularly in smoked or cured fish.
4. Clostridium botulinum: This is a bacteria that can be found in improperly canned or preserved fish and seafood.
5. Staphylococcus aureus: This is a bacteria that can be present in raw or cooked fish and seafood, particularly in fish that has been stored at room temperature for too long.

It’s important to handle and cook fish properly to minimize the risk of foodborne illness caused by these bacteria. This includes storing fish at the proper temperature, cooking it to the correct internal temperature, and avoiding cross-contamination with other foods.

ABSTRACT

The given information consists of three tables that outline the objectives, variables, and methods for a research project on optimizing anaerobic digestion for energy production. Table 1 describes the optimization of cow dung and chicken droppings for maximum energy production via co-digestion with lemon grass, using statistical analysis to identify the optimal ratio of feedstocks. Table 2 presents the variables to be tested and the method/approach used to evaluate the technical performance of anaerobic digestion of cow dung and food waste, as well as their co-digestion with lemon grass as biomass feed material. Table 3 outlines the variables to be tested and the method/approach used to utilize biogas digesters for the digestion of cow dung and food waste, monitoring the digestion efficiency, biogas yield, and methane content. The research aims to provide insights into the technical performance of anaerobic digestion and optimize the biogas production process for increased efficiency and sustainability.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Biogas is a renewable energy source produced from the anaerobic digestion of organic matter. It is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases. Biogas can be used for cooking, heating, and electricity generation. The production of biogas from cow dung and food waste is gaining popularity due to its potential to mitigate environmental problems, such as greenhouse gas emissions and waste management issues. This essay will discuss the production of biogas using cow dung and food waste and its benefits. Cow dung and food waste are both rich in organic matter and can be used as feedstock for biogas production. The anaerobic digestion process involves the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen.

Medicinal plants from time immemorial have been the backbone of traditional medicine and are widely used to treat acute and chronic diseases. The demand for such medicines is increasing day by day for the management and treatment of various health problems.¹ Despite this rapid growth, there is limited evidence for the effectiveness and toxicity of such medicines; much more needs to be done to validate the ethnopharmacological claims with an evidence base for phytomedicines, botanicals, and all-natural folklore-originated medicines. However, few studies have addressed the toxicity of natural plants, although many questions have been raised regarding their safety.^2,3 The importance of plant species for therapeutic applications is well established but studies on certain plant-induced toxicity are scarce. However, the rationale for the utilization of medicinal plants has rested largely on long-term clinical experience with little or no scientific data on their efficacy and safety.⁴

Chemotherapy is one of the potential treatments for prolonging the patient’s life. Almost 60% of anticancer drugs are of natural origin, such as plants (i.e., camptothecines, irinotecan, and vincristine) and microorganisms (i.e., bleomycin, dactinomicines, doxorubicin and mitomycin).⁵ However, many chemotherapeutic drugs are presently placed in a predicament of reduced therapeutic effect due to the problem of drug-resistance.⁶Chemotherapeutic drugs also exert toxicity to normal cells, which in turn causes the unpleasant side effects to the patients. For these reasons, research and development of new classes of anticancer agents which exhibit efficient and selective toxicity in tumour cells are enticing increased attention.

Presently, herbal medicines are gaining interest because of their cost effective and eco-friendly attributes.⁷ L. glutinosa C.B. Rob is an evergreen tree species belonging to the family Lauraceae. The traditional practitioners residing near Bhadra Wild Life Sanctuary of the Western Ghats are using the stem bark extract to cure alcoholism-related liver disorders.

The need to evaluate students after an effective teaching and learning process is necessary. To this end, educationists have introduced a method of evaluation known as continuous assessment, which forms an integral part of Nigeria’s new policy on education, published in 1977 and revised in 1981, 1983, 1987, 1989 and 2014. The new policy stipulates among other things, the use of continuous assessment for students evaluation instead of using the orthodox single end of course, of year, national or certificate examinations. According to National Policy on Education (2014) the primary education will have the duration of six years, secondary education for six years, which is further sub-divided into three years Junior Secondary School (JSS) and three years of Senior Secondary School (SSS). It enables students to acquire further knowledge and develop skills. The Senior Secondary School is for those willing to have a comprehensive education with a core curriculum designed to broaden students’ knowledge and outlook and large number of effective subjects for a choice of career.

This new policy started from 1982/1983 Academic Session. In 1976, Universal Free Primary Education (UPE) was introduced, Also in 1999 the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme was launched and executed by the Government and people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria to eradicate illiteracy, ignorance and poverty as well as stimulate and accelerate national development, political consciousness and national integration. The programme was flagged off in Sokoto, Sokoto State. The Universal Basic Education programme is Nigeria’s programme strategy for the achievement of Education for All (EFA) and the education related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs.

The implementation process of the programme has been on since 1999 but progress was hampered by lack of an enabling law to execute certain aspects of the programme. What a big relief it was when the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo signed the Universal Basic Education Bill into Law on 26^th May, 2004, following its passage by the National Assembly. The Universal Basic Education Act 2004 makes provision for basic education. The financing of basic education is the responsibility of States and Local Governments. However, the Federal Government has decided to intervene in the provision of basic education with 2% of its Consolidated Revenue Fund. For States to fully benefit from this fund, criteria were established which States are to comply. The Act also provides for the establishment of Universal basic Education Commission (UBEC) to coordinate the implementation of the programme at the States and Local Government Areas through the State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) of each State and the Local Government Education Authorities (LGEAs). The Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) was formally established on 7^th October, 2004. Furthermore the new policy on education popularly known as the 6-3-3-4 systems came into being. To this end most states in Nigeria desired to train teachers to be able to meet with new challenges in education but unfortunately enough trained teachers have not been available to man the education industry. The new policy on education (6-3-3-4) system concerned itself with qualified and dedicated teachers because of the emphasis on the use of continuous assessment.

• Conceptual Background

Greaney (2001) defines assessment as any procedures or activity that is designed to collect information about the knowledge, attitude or skills of the learner or group of learners. Assessment is therefore a process through which the quality of an individual’s work or performance is judged. When carried out as an on-going process, assessment is known as Continuous Assessment (CA). CA is a formative evaluation procedure concerned with finding out, in a systematic manner, the over-all gains that a student has made in terms of knowledge, attitude and skills after a given set of learning experience (Ogunniyi, 1984). According to Aggarwal (1999), CA is not simply continuous testing. Continuous assessment does not solely depend on formal tests. CA is more than giving a test, it involves every decision made by the teacher in class to improve students’ achievement. CA may take different forms such as formal questions given to students during class, take-home assignments/exercises and recapitulation exercise.

Assessment is either internal or external. Internal assessment refers to school-based assessment. Which includes class assignments, teacher-made tests, recap exercises and field studies, all these tools form part of the classroom continuous assessment strategies. A continuous assessment strategy refers to the different tools/procedures used in the classroom to understand the academic achievement levels of learners in terms of their knowledge, attitudes and values. Also, a strategy in assessment is a purposefully conceived and determined plan of action. It is a pattern of assessment that seems to attain certain outcomes and to guard against others (Aggarwal, 1999). External assessment refers to test that are produced by examining bodies away from school.

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

The raising of sheep and goats is one of the most important aspects of agriculture in Nigeria, and it has made a significant contribution to the expansion and development of the country’s economy. It is estimated that it contributes more than 1626,000 t per year to the provision of domestic meat. This is a significant contribution. Sheep and goats are important to the livelihood of farmers because they provide a wide variety of products and services, including: meat, milk, hide and skin, hairs, horns, bones, manure, protection, gifts, religious rituals, and medicine. Sheep and goats also play important roles in the production of wool, which is used in clothing and other products (Sertse and Wossene, 2007; Anyanwu, 1998).

Ectoparasites have a negative impact on sheep and goats, which in turn lowers their capacity to provide the products and services listed above. Ectoparasites have multiple negative effects on the health of sheep and goats, including causing them to lose weight, slow down their growth, and produce less milk. Because of the activities that they engage in, arthropod ectoparasites are capable of having a wide variety of direct and indirect effects on the hosts to which they are attached (Wall and Shear, 2001; Cornall and Wall, 2015). Ectoparasites, and ticks in particular, are significant parasites due to the voracious blood-sucking activity that they engage in, as well as their role as vectors for a number of different disease-causing agents in humans and livestock (Hashemi-Fesharki et al., 1994; Cumming, 1998). The ever-increasing risk that ectoparasites pose to the sheep and goat production industry, as well as the tanning business, calls for immediate and well-coordinated control measures (Cornall and Wall, 2015).

Information that is currently available on the distribution of ectoparasites in sheep and goats in Nigeria comes from studies conducted in Zaria, North Western Nigeria, by Schillhorn van Veen and Mohammed (1975), Mohammad and Agbede (1980), and George et al. (1992); Otesile and Obasaju (1980) conducted research in Ibadan, Southern Western Nigeria; Ugochukwu and Apeh (1985) conducted research in Nsukka, South Eastern

One of the most important aspects of animal husbandry in Gombe and the rest of the North Eastern region of Nigeria is the keeping of sheep and goats; however, the distribution, seasonal abundance, and population dynamics of ectoparasites that affect sheep and goats in Gombe and the rest of the North Eastern region of Nigeria have received little attention from researchers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the different types of ectoparasites, as well as their prevalence and intensity, among sheep and goats in Gombe, which is located in Gombe State, Nigeria.

ASSESSMENT OF NUTRIENT AND ANTI-NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF SOME INDIGENEOUS GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES IN NIGERIA

Native vegetables are also sometimes referred to as wild vegetables or plants whose leaves, roots, or fruits are edible and used as vegetables by rural and urban populations as a result of tradition, custom, and habit. Indigenous vegetables are typically grown in areas with a temperate climate (Towns and Shackleton, 2018). The young growth points and the tender leaves of the plant are the parts of the plant that are used in the preparation of vegetable dishes for the vast majority of species. Petioles and, in some instances, younger, more tender stems are also included; however, more mature, woodier stems are thrown away (Redzic, 2006; Rensburg et al., 2004). These vegetables are consumed in large quantities, particularly during times of natural disasters and famines when the cultivation of other vegetables is not possible. Vegetables that are either domesticated or grown wild in regions with disturbed soils or agricultural activity are considered to be indigenous vegetables (Assan, 2014). The wild varieties are those that grow in their natural habitat, which is the wilderness. On the other hand, the semi-wild varieties, also known as semi-cultivated varieties, are those that are protected because they grow near homes or in home gardens (Venter, Rensburg, Vorster, Heever, and Zijl, 2007).
Indigenous leafy vegetables are typically grown at a subsistence level and are more prevalent in rural areas. This is because urban populations have greater access to supermarkets. Indigenous leafy vegetables are still generally regarded as weeds by researchers and extension personnel. These individuals also criticize farmers for failing to keep this weed population under control, which results in this essential food being labeled as not being worthy of the space it occupies in the fields (Mayekiso and Mditshwa, 2017). Because they are easily able to adapt to harsh or difficult environments, indigenous vegetables may have the potential to make a positive contribution to the global food production system (Maseko et al., 2017). The consumption of these indigenous vegetables has decreased as a direct result of the widespread availability of exotic vegetables. There has been a significant decrease in the availability of native green leafy vegetables, which has been caused in part by an excessive cultivation of field crops, a change in habitat, as well as chemical eradication of wild vegetable populations (Mathaba, 2017). Indigenous Leafy Vegetables play an important role in the food security strategies of many rural households, and their utilization and production fall under the purview of the more senior women in those households (Vorster, Stevens, and Steyn, 2008).

The Study of the Antioxidant Activity of Phenolic Components of Natural Honey in Nigeria

ABSTRACT.

In this study, ten honey and five propolis samples from different geographical origins were tested. Both honey and propolis samples showed high content of total phenolic compounds (330-610 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/100 g honey; 365-1022 mg GAE/g ethanol extract of propolis (EEP). The total flavonoids ranged from (15.1-42.6 mg catechin equivalent (CE)/100 g for honey; to 123-74 mg CE/g for EEP. These honeybee products of Ethiopia had high total radical scavenging properties with respect to 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH); 18.1-59.8% and 48.6-87.8% for honey and EEP respectively. Furthermore, the hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) of the honey samples was found to be low with a mean value of 4.8 mg/kg suggesting that the samples were of good quality. The antioxidant properties of the products showed a good correlation (r2 = 0.50-0.82) with their polyphenolic contents.

Renoprotective Role of Natural Honey in the prevention of High Blood Pressure in Animal Model

Introduction

Honey is a natural product produced from the nectar and exudation of plants by the honeybees, Apis mellifera (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2010). The natural honey has been reported to contain about 200 substances, which consist of not only highly concentrated solution of sugars, but also the complex mixture of other saccharides, amino acids, peptides, enzymes, proteins, organic acids, polyphenols, carotenoidlike substances, vitamins, and minerals (Gheldof etal., 2002; Sato & Miyata, 2000; White, 1975).

Sugars are the main constituents of honey, comprising about 95% of its dry weight (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2010). While glucose and fructose are the dominant constituents, about 25 different sugars have been detected (Doner, 1977; Siddiqui, 1970). The view by White (1975) has demonstrated that proteins in honey are mainly enzymes. Honey contains roughly 0.5% proteins (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2010) and the protein contents in some honeys can be over 1 000 µg/g (Azeredo et al., 2003). Main enzymes include diastase, invertase, glucose oxidase and catalase. Although the content of amino acids in honey is relatively small, it has been found that almost all of physiologically essential amino acids are present in honey (Cotte et al., 2004; Hermosín et al., 2003). The primary amino acid is proline, contributing 50-85% of the total amino acids (Hermosín et al., 2003). The level of organic acids in honey is relatively low and about 18 organic acids have been detected (Nanda et al., 2003). Most of the acidity present in honey is added by honeybees (Echigo & Takenaka, 1974). Gluconic acid, the predominant honey organic acid, is the product of glucose oxidation, presenting at 50-fold higher levels than other acids (Cherchi et al., 1994). Investigations have shown that a wide range of trace elements are present in honey, including Al, Ba, Bi, Co, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, Ti, as well as minerals (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Na, Mg, Mn, Zn) (Conti, 2000; Stocker et al., 2005), among them, the main mineral element is potassium while copper presents lowest amount (Nada et al., 2003). Vitamins such as thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6), and ascorbic acid (C) have also been reported but their amount is very small in honey (Ball, 2007; Nada et al., 2003). When honey is treated with mild heat or prolonged storage, a compositional change can occur due to caramelization of the carbohydrates, the Maillard reaction, and decomposition of fructose in the acid medium of honey (Villamiel et al., 2001)

Phytochemicals are chemical substances naturally occurring in plants and many of them are now recognized to have health-promoting activity (Apostolidis et al., 2006; Liu, 2003; Liu, 2004; Sun et al., 2002; Vattem et al., 2005). Phenolic substances are the largest group of phytochemicals (King & Young, 1999). The plants containing phytochemicals might be used as a supply of the bees; thereby bioactive compounds can be transferred to honey. Studies have shown that honey contains great variation in contents of different phytochemicals according to floral sources and climatic conditions, which contribute to different characteristic colors, flavors, aromas, and bioactivities (Abu-Tarboush et al., 1993; Molan, 1996). As herbal medicines are derived from different plants, which can produce different therapeutic properties (Villegas et al., 1997), some honey derived from these specific plants may provide added value for health promotion. Honey produced by bees fed herbal extracts has shown greater antioxidant activity than normal honey (Rosenblat et al., 1997).

ABSTRACT

Ecotoxicology Biomarker of liver function using Clarias gariepinus 

INTRODUCTION

Clarias gariepinus, which is indigenous from Africa (Rahman et al. 1992), is one of the most important tropical catfish species for aquaculture (de Graaf and Janssen 1996) in spite of its commanding presence in the wild. This might have been due to its high growth rate, omnivorous feeding habit, high feed conversion rates and hardiness, including its high resistance to handling and stress (Olaifa et al. 2003; Eyo and Ezechie 2004; Akinsanya and Otubanjo 2006; Ogundiran et al. 2009). Clarias gariepinus is known to tolerate harsh aquatic conditions (Hogendoorn 1992; Bruton 1979) in terms of low dissolved oxygen concentrations by utilizing both dissolved and atmospheric oxygen (Okechi 2004), especially in fishes above 12 – 14 days old with functionally developed accessory respiratory organs (Peteri et al. 1992). Though C. gariepinus can endure long periods of draughts (Dunn 2000), it cannot survive long in water temperature below 9 – 10ºC (Peteri et al. 1992). These endearing qualities may have increased the importance of C. gariepinus in ecotoxicological studies (Weckler 2000).

Clarias gariepinus, like any other aquatic organism, live in direct contact with the aquatic environment where some changes are rapidly reflected as measurable patho-physiological alterations in exposed fishes (Wilson and Taylor 1993; Musa and Omoriegie 1999; Seith and Saxena 2003). However, such measurable changes depend upon the biological status of exposed fish as well as upon the type and duration of their exposure to toxicants within that aquatic environment (Brungs 1977). That is why fishes are used as acceptable bio-indicators of environmental pollution (Nussey et al. 1995; Kock et al. 1996; Borkovic et al. 2008; Kim et al. 2008), especially as most aquatic waters are constantly being threatened by the environmental pollution (Biney, et al. 1987; Svensson et al. 1996; Adamu and Kori-Siakpere 2008). This is because normal physiological processes are long affected before the death of an organism thereby creating the need for physiological and biochemical indicators of health and sub-lethal effects of the toxicants (Van Vuren 1986; Van der Merve et al. 1993).

The increasing spates of water pollution have continued to be a major problem in Nigeria and other developing countries (Adelegan 2008). Ayodele and Abubakar (2001) and Sani (2011) have reported the pollution of Tiga dam, Nigeria. However, there is dearth of information on the effects of such pollution on the haematological and biochemical profile of Tiga dam’s fish biota. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the haematology and biochemistry of C. gariepinus as biomarkers of environmental pollution in Tiga dam, Nigeria.