CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Heavy metal contamination is a significant environmental concern with adverse effects on human health. These toxic substances, including lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic, are released into the environment through various industrial and anthropogenic activities. One area where heavy metal contamination can have a profound impact is in kitchen environments, where food preparation and cooking take place. Understanding the extent of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments is crucial, as it directly affects human exposure to these toxic substances.

Nasarawa, a state located in Nigeria, is known for its agricultural activities and diverse food culture. However, rapid industrialization and urbanization in the region may contribute to the release of heavy metals into the environment. These contaminants can find their way into kitchen environments through several pathways, including contaminated water sources, contaminated soil used for farming, and the use of metal-containing cookware and utensils.

The implications of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments for lung and kidney health are particularly concerning. Inhalation of heavy metal particles and consumption of contaminated food and water can lead to the accumulation of these toxic substances in the body, affecting the respiratory and renal systems. Heavy metals have been linked to various health issues, including respiratory problems such as lung inflammation, impaired lung function, and increased risk of lung cancer. Additionally, they can cause kidney damage and dysfunction, leading to chronic kidney disease and other renal complications.

Given the potential risks associated with heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments, it is essential to examine the extent of this issue in Nasarawa. Conducting a comprehensive assessment of heavy metal concentrations in kitchen environments, including water sources, cooking utensils, and food items, can provide valuable insights into the potential health risks faced by the local population. This research will contribute to the development of effective strategies to mitigate heavy metal contamination and protect the lung and kidney health of individuals residing in Nasarawa.

1.1 Background to the Study

The industrial applications of several metals have revolutionized the human environment. However, they have also been proven to be hazardous to health following their ingestion, intentionally or accidentally (Zohar, 1980).

The presence of metals in food can be caused by different sources such as through direct contamination during production, with metal-rich soil, air, or contaminated water as well as from the use of pesticides or fertilizers (Fishbein, 1981; Arora et al., 2008). Food can also be contaminated during processing, transportation and storage (Wang et al., 2006).

According to International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS), (1999) there are 35 metals that are concern to humans due to occupational or residential exposure and it has been estimated that around one billion people worldwide suffer from some form of diseases attributed to those metals (WHO, 2011). Regardless of their effect, many of them play a crucial role in all life forms. For example, arsenic (As), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) are considered essential at low concentrations but are toxic at high levels (Mertz, 1981). However, elements like aluminium (Al), beryllium (Be) and lead (Pb) have no biological significance (Trichet & Defarge, 1995).

Although metal toxicity depends on the amount ingested, chronic exposure to certain metals, such as cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), can cause severe toxic effects, even in low amounts. Humans are exposed to metals through different exposure pathways, the most common being inhalation of contaminated air and ingestion of products such as water, medicinal herbs, and food (Nowak & Chmielnicka, 2000; Abou-Arab, 2000).

Metals tend to bioaccumlate thus their concentration increases in a biological system over time. This is because they are stored faster than being metabolized or excreted (Hare, 1992). Unlike organic molecules, metals do not require bioactivation or undergoes enzymatic modification that produces a reactive chemical species for detoxification process (Waalkes, 1995). However, metals use other mechanisms, such as long-term storage (e.g., Iron) and biliary and/or urinary excretion (Waalkes, 1995).

Generally, metals disrupt basic metabolic functions in two ways; first, when stored in the soft tissue of the body, they compete with other ions. For instance, heavy metals like Pb, Hg and Cd have affinity to sulphur and attack the thiol groups in the active site of enzymes, thus inactivating and disrupt their function (Ademoroti, 1996; Alka, 2000). Secondly, they antagonistically compete with essential ions and prevent them from fulfilling their biological functions. For instance, Pb replaces Ca in bones (Pounds, 1983).

One of the sources of food contamination by metal includes techniques and materials used in food processing (Dabonne et al., 2010). The domestic preparations of food as a potential source of metal contamination have been overlooked for long time. However, there are reports that indicate that certain kitchen utensils used for food preparation can represent a significant risk because they are manufactured with materials that can be hazardous or contaminated by toxic metals (DM et al., 1985; Hight, 2001).

The problem with the presence of metals in kitchen based equipments lies in the fact that these contaminants can be transferred to food and beverages by a leaching process, which is again influenced by physical and chemical conditions of the food, such as boiling duration and pH (zález et al., 1996; Baba et al., 2004; Dadd, 2009).

Various kinds of utensils are hand crafted and used for the preparation, storage and consumption of foods. These utensils can be source of metal contamination since some of the raw materials used in their manufacturing contain heavy metals, such as clay and enamel (Dabonne et al., 2010). The use of these utensils can release toxic metals into food substances during processing, sometimes in amounts high enough to constitute health hazard (Dadd, 2009). For instance, studies conducted by Dabonne et al., (2010) in Cote d’Ivoire shows that traditional utensils made out of clay and traditional Aluminum pots are the potential sources of metals like aluminium and iron. Another study by Omolaoye et al., (2010) in Nigeria also shows that food items and beverages prepared in ceramic products imported from China are likely to show high levels of lead.

Similarly, cottage industries in our country are producing cooking utensils from metallic Scraps. Therefore, the present study was aimed at determining the leaching of selected metals from unstandardized cookwares.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The contamination of kitchen environments with heavy metals in Nasarawa presents a significant concern for human health, particularly with implications for lung and kidney health. However, the extent of heavy metal contamination in these environments and its specific effects on human health in the region have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, this study aims to address the following problem:

1. What is the level of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments in Nasarawa?
2. What are the specific heavy metals present in these environments and what are their concentrations?
3. How do heavy metals enter kitchen environments, and what are the potential sources of contamination?
4. What are the implications for lung and kidney health resulting from heavy metal exposure in kitchen environments?
5. What measures can be taken to mitigate heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments and safeguard the lung and kidney health of individuals in Nasarawa?

By investigating these aspects, this study intends to shed light on the heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments in Nasarawa and its implications for lung and kidney health.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main objective of the study is to examine the Heavy Metal Contamination in Kitchen Environments In Nasarawa: Implications for Lung and Kidney Health

The following are the specific objectives;

1. To evaluate the natural metallic content of the various food ingredients
2. To determine the leaching of some selected metals (Al, Fe, Ni and Pb) from traditional cooking pot
3. To determine the influence of pH, cooking duration and cooking frequency on metal leaching
4. To examine the health implications of these heavy metals

1.4 Significance of the study

The significance of the study on heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments in Nasarawa with implications for lung and kidney health is as follows:

1. Human Health Impact: Understanding the extent of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments is crucial for assessing its potential health effects on individuals residing in Nasarawa. The study will provide valuable insights into the specific heavy metals present, their concentrations, and their potential implications for lung and kidney health. This knowledge will contribute to identifying high-risk areas and populations, enabling the development of targeted interventions to protect public health.
2. Preventive Measures: The study findings will serve as a foundation for implementing preventive measures to mitigate heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments. This includes identifying potential sources of contamination and recommending appropriate strategies to minimize exposure. By implementing effective preventive measures, such as improving water quality, promoting safe cooking practices, and encouraging the use of non-toxic utensils and cookware, the study can contribute to reducing the risk of heavy metal-related health issues in Nasarawa.
3. Environmental Management: The study will provide insights into the sources of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments, which can contribute to broader environmental management efforts. By identifying the major sources, such as industrial activities or agricultural practices, policymakers and regulatory bodies can implement measures to control and reduce heavy metal emissions. This can lead to overall improvements in environmental quality and the well-being of the local population.
4. Public Awareness: Conducting this study will raise awareness among the general public and relevant stakeholders about the potential risks associated with heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments. Disseminating the study findings through public health campaigns, educational programs, and community engagement initiatives can empower individuals to take proactive steps to protect their lung and kidney health. Increased awareness can also drive behavioral changes, such as adopting safer cooking practices and utilizing less toxic utensils, contributing to the overall reduction in heavy metal exposure.
5. Scientific Knowledge and Future Research: The study will contribute to the existing scientific knowledge on heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments, particularly in the specific context of Nasarawa. The findings can serve as a basis for future research, allowing for more comprehensive investigations into the specific health effects, long-term exposure risks, and potential interventions. This can lead to a deeper understanding of heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments globally and the development of evidence-based strategies to address this issue effectively.

1.5 Scope of the study

In this study, we aim to investigate the heavy metal contamination in kitchen environments in Nasarawa and evaluate its implications for lung and kidney health. By analyzing the concentration of heavy metals in various kitchen-related matrices, such as drinking water, cooking utensils, and commonly consumed food items, we can assess the extent of contamination and its potential impact on human health. The findings of this research will serve as a foundation for implementing appropriate preventive measures and promoting awareness about the risks associated with heavy metal exposure in kitchen environments.

CHAPTER ONE

Unwanted sound or any unjustified disruption of sound within a suitable frequency spectrum is referred to as noise (Olayinka, 2013). On the other hand, sound is thought to be a sensory perception brought on by physiological processes in the auditory brain that result in a complex wave pattern (Margaritis & Kang, 2017). Environmental noise, residential noise, and domestic noise are all terms used to describe noise that comes from sources other than an industrial workplace, according to Belojevic et al. (2016). Road, rail, and air traffic, industries, construction, public works projects, and social activities are the main sources of environmental noise (Hammersen, Niemann, & Hoebel, 2016).

Even though it is a pervasive and growing threat, noise pollution remains underappreciated (Cohen et al., 2014). Long-term exposure to relatively modest noise levels can be harmful to human health (UNEP, 2003). Numerous Americans experience varying degrees of hearing loss that is directly related to noise. Similar to this, populations living within the European Union experience unacceptably high levels of ongoing noise that are dangerous to their health (Fan, Zhiyi, Zhujun, & Jiani, 2010).

In the US, noise pollution is a widespread problem. Numerous noise pollution, such as road noise and noise from entertainment centers and other social activities, are exposed to by more than half of the American population (Hammer et al., 2014).

According to Hammersen et al. (2016), annual noise exposure levels are high enough to be harmful to human health. Despite the fact that noise exposure is common, it has not received the same attention or treatment as other types of pollution, such as radiation and chemical risks. In both industrialized and developing countries, noise exposure is increasing, particularly in the general living environment, according to Cohen et al. (2014), who also stress that noise exposure in the twenty-first century is a serious public health issue.

Barbara and Rose (2011) state that during a community evaluation of noise levels, maximum and minimum noise levels should be recorded. If the level does not fall below 90 dB (A) within a window of eight hours per day, an inadequate noise exposure should be noted. According to the World Health Organization, environmental noise that averages 70 dB (A) is hazardous to health. The Environmental Management and Coordination (Noise and Excessive Vibration Pollution) (Control) Regulation, 2009 in Kenya establishes 60dB (A) as the maximum allowable ambient noise level in commercial zones during the day (Gongi, 2018).

A more pervasive form of pollution, noise can interfere with a variety of aspects of living. It disrupts communication, has negative effects on the cardiovascular system, social behavior, and productivity, impairs attention, impairs hearing, makes people more alert, disturbs their sleep, and makes noise irritation (Bluhm et al., 2004). In recent years, there has been an increase in hearing loss and other noise-related risks.

decades as opposed to the period prior to the Industrial Revolution, when few people were subjected to loud noise (Barbara & Rose, 2011).

WHO (2008b) states that noise can interfere with a person’s ability to work, relax, sleep, and communicate as well as cause hearing loss and other psychological, physiological, and possibly pathological effects. Furthermore, hearing loss brought on by exposure to environmental noise has become a topic of concern in the majority of countries. Environmental noise has been shown to have certain direct negative effects besides hearing loss (Gongi, 2018; Curhan et al., 2012). These include detrimental consequences on performance, communication, and behavior, as well as non-auditory physiological effects, noise-induced sleep disruption, and discomfort to the surrounding neighborhood (Gongi, 2018). Compared to other populations, some may be more susceptible to the harmful effects of noise (Bryan et al., 2008).

According to Münzel, Gori, Babisch, and Basner (2014), exposure to loud noise can have a serious negative influence on one’s health. The loss of hearing acuity brought on by frequent exposure to loud noise—most commonly found in the workplace—is the most significant. Additionally, it can frequently seriously impede communication, which causes quantified productivity losses and discomfort, which causes unfavorable community reactions. According to Basner et al. (2014), noise can be irritating, interfere with speech and community reactions, lead to hearing loss, and have other negative impacts. He argues that the biggest risk factor is Hearing loss, heart conditions, and accidents are caused by noise (Basner et al., 2014). Every amount of noise can

alter our cognitive processes, emotional wellness, and physical wellbeing. Potential negative health effects can include irritation, disturbed sleep, poor academic performance, ischemic heart disease, high blood pressure, and hearing loss (Hambrick et al., 2008). In order to calculate the environmental burden of disease (EBD), which is measured in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), environmental noise is used (WHO, 2011). Issue Statement

A major worldwide preventable cause of permanent hearing loss is exposure to extremely loud noise. Environmental noise, particularly traffic noise, is a growing risk factor for hearing loss and other health hazards in emerging nations (Rom & Markowitz, 2007). According to WHO (2008a), environmental noise causes 16% of adults’ debilitating hearing loss, with regional variations of 7% to 21%. According to Hammer et al. (2014), 10 to 15 million Americans are affected by noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). In the UK, research demonstrates that young adults have serious hearing issues that are related to workplace noise (Prendergast et al., 2017). Additionally, Basner et al. (2014) reported that exposure to concert noise in the Nottingham and England area can lead to occurrences of tinnitus. The International Labor Organization (ILO, 2004:9) has drawn attention to the dearth of trustworthy statistics on the position of people with disabilities in Kenya, particularly those who have hearing impairments. However, the 2009 national census found that 1.3 million Kenyans were living with disabilities, with hearing impairments accounting for 14% of these instances (KNBS, 2010).

Many developing countries, including Kenya, lack adequate legislation on noise pollution as well as initiatives to prevent noise-induced hearing loss and other noise-related health issues. Noise pollution has been linked as the primary cause of hearing disorders in many countries. Where such laws exist, such as the Environmental Management and Coordination Act of 1999 and the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), there is frequently insufficient enforcement to reduce noise pollution (Enda, M. and 2014). Additionally, insufficient public health research and initiatives have been made to estimate the prevalence, risk factors, and health costs of ambient noise (Musiba, 2015). To describe the spatial distribution of noise levels in the Nairobi Central Business District, Wawa and Mulaku (2015) measured noise levels from a preset source of noise in Nairobi. They did not evaluate the effects of high noise levels on the population’s health and well-being, despite the fact that their investigation found high levels of noise between 61 and 78 dB. It is clear from their findings that Nairobi has significant noise levels, and further research is needed to determine the health consequences of noise on the general populace. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the perceived health impacts of high noise levels in addition to measuring the noise levels.

ABSTRACT

In spite of the efforts of tstate government in Nigeria to clean up Makurdi, the situation with waste accumulation in the residential areas and throughout the entire town continues to deteriorate on a daily basis. The problem is made even more severe by the fact that there are plastic bottles and papers wrapped in polythene all around the town. These items can be found everywhere. In addition to that, visitors who are unfamiliar with the area may notice heaps of waste in various locations outside residential neighborhoods. These heaps of garbage are a nuisance for people who are new to the area. A further factor that has contributed to the current state of affairs is the high population and economic activity that is concentrated in the town, which has been accompanied by a rapid rise in the amount of solid waste that has been produced as a result of production and consuming activities. This study investigated several approaches to the management of solid waste and the degradation of the environment in Nigeria. To investigate the influence of location of Households on the disposal of solid waste; to investigate the influence of garbage disposal facilities and technologies on the disposal and management of solid waste; and to determine how various methods of waste disposal and management are impacted by the levels of education and awareness. These are the objectives of the study. In this particular piece of research, a descriptive survey served as the research design, and cluster, purposive, and random sampling were the methods that were utilized to choose the sample. For the purpose of this study, a representative sample of 400 participants was used. Although guided interviews and observation were also employed to gain knowledge and information, the primary data collection tool for this study was a questionnaire. Additionally, knowledge and information were gathered through the use of a questionnaire. After the data acquired was analyzed with the SPSS tool, it was presented with the help of frequency and percentage Tables. According to the findings of the study, the citizens of Makurdi are unaware of any responsibility or stated technique of waste management that has been implemented by the authorities in order to maintain the local government clean. According to the data, it was discovered that the size of a household was more important than its location in determining the amount of waste that it produced, even though the household could be in a completely different neighborhood. The data also make it abundantly evident that the majority of residents residing in Makurdi do not have access to waste disposal mechanisms, technologies, or facilities that are suitable to meet their needs. As a consequence of this, the majority of home rubbish is dispersed all over residential places, which gives the surroundings of the municipality a negative image. In addition, the most prevalent method of trash disposal that locals utilize is known as surface dumping, which refers to the dumping of domestic waste. Other techniques include burying the waste in the ground or burning it, though burying household waste is not as common as the other methods. According to the findings of the study, the government of Benue should establish dedicated garbage landfills in all residential areas. This would ensure that inhabitants would no longer throw their household rubbish all over the place, as they are prone to doing at the present time. People would see the logic in taking their waste to the authorized sites to dump it if there were more dumping places available, rather than scattering it around as they do now if there were more dumping places. Because it puts them at risk of catching infections, residents of Makurdi should be educated about the dangers of disposing of their waste close to residential areas and encouraged to cease doing so. Instead, the council ought to establish particular locations for the depositing and collecting of rubbish. The city council ought to get into contracts with various private rubbish collectors and request that they extend the services they already offer to the proprietors of businesses located along the main streets to the surrounding residential neighborhoods. This would result in a decrease in the amount of waste found in residential areas.

OIL SPILLAGE: CONTAINMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT IN NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The physical presence of the oil industry in Nigeria is so large and has resulted in a lot of  activities in the upstream sector which has deleterious effects on ecosystem stability and local biodiversity – which the peoples‘ livelihoods depend upon. This research provides an overview of environmental issues in the oil and gas industry in Nigeria with specific focus on oil spillage and also highlights the best approaches to achieving high environmental performance in the oil and gas industry in Nigeria. The materials for this research include the use of existing reports on the oil and gas industry in Nigeria to acquire the required information. Comparative study method was used in which the data obtained Nigerian National Petroleum Company Annual Statistical report for 2013 and Shell Nigeria Monthly/ Annual statistical Reports for 2013 was analysed and logical deductions and sequential presentation of facts were thus made. It was observed in this study that oil spills occur more as a result of vandalisation than rupture during operations. Shell Nigeria has a record of oil spill amounting to about 3.038 billion barrels over a period of ten years (2003 to 2012) from their pipelines alone. The number of incidences of oil spill recorded by Shell Nigeria reduced within the period of 2007 to 2013 from 320 to 200 respectively. Also, it was observed that since 2010 the volume of oil spill has dropped significantly from 102, 000 barrels of 2009 to 20,000 barrels in 2013. Furthermore, the regulatory bodies are not working effectively and some of the country‘s regulations are out of date. Hence, a need for the government to review the regulatory laws and device an efficient means of enforcing them whenever necessary.

An assessment of the management of garbage collection and waste disposal

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, waste is any item that is longer in use or cannot be used for any good purpose. Solid waste has been defined as any useless, unwanted or discarded material (American Public Work Association, 1975) with insufficient liquid content to be free-flowing. Solid waste is sticky and weighty in nature and therefore has the capacity of accumulating and defacing the physical environment if not well managed (Sada and Odemoerho, 1988).

Solid waste is any moveable solid object which the owner wishes to dispose if it is no longer useful to the immediate owner. Solid wastes are non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes containing complex and sometimes hazardous substances. Man’s activities today generates tons of thousands of refuse which are seen littered everywhere causing diverse environmental problems. This calls for urgent expertise in waste management as the importance of a healthy environment for meaningful and productive work is tied to proper waste management. Waste is everybody’s business as we all generate waste in nearly everything we do. In the past, waste was considered as a resources. This was because the waste that was generated was mainly agricultural and was bio-degradable and as such disposal was not a problem as the volume product was low and these agricultural wastes helped to enrich the soil. This is not the situation today as waste is a major problem that needs to be solved as urgently as possible rather than been considered as a resource.

Over the years, studies have shown that rapid population growth and the growth of urban centres which followed the oil boom in the 1970s and industrialization came with a change in waste stream in Nigeria. This was as a result of increased use of goods to satisfy and meet the need of the teeming population resulting in the substantial increase in the amount of wastes generated. It is therefore important to note that waste generation and population growth work hand-in-hand.

In Nigerian towns and cities, solid wastes of different kinds are generated and disposed off indiscriminately causing lots of environmental and health hazards. A good example of such cities include Lagos, Kano, Calabar, Port Harcourt, Uyo, Aba, Yenagoa, etc. David (1985) noted that the issue of solid waste is not only familiar but assumed a global dimension in recent years causing series of environmental problems ranging from environmental degradation to pollution and imbalance, flooding, epidemics of infectious increase and decline in urban quality.

Solid waste can be classified into two broad categories – biodegradable solid waste and non-biodegradable solid waste. Biodegradable wastes are those wastes that can be easily decomposed by natural process ranging from food remnants to leaves from trees, cotton wool, clothes, banana peels, papers, etc. On the other hand, non-biodegradable wastes are those wastes that cannot be broken down or decomposed by natural processes. They can however be recycled or reused. Such wastes include bottles, glasses, plastics, cans and wrappings of all kinds, nylon bags, metals, needles and syringes, woods, etc. Solid wastes can also be classified based on their level of environmental contamination that is whether they are hazardous or non-hazardous to both man and the environment.

The sources from which wastes are generated ranges from municipal (street sweeping, sewage treatment plants, schools etc) to residential (flood wastes, plastics, vehicles, wood, glass etc), industrial (demolition materials, ashes etc) agricultural sources (spoiled food waste, pesticides, etc).

Solid waste disposal can be carried out using several options but before any of these options can be adopted, three vital factors should be considered. Firstly, the physical characteristics of the locality as regards the topography of the area where waste management activities are to be carried out because waste disposal often requires a large parcel of land for an efficient operation especially of sanitary landfill is to be adopted; secondly, the character, quality and quantity of waste to be disposed of. The quantity and nature of household refuse varies greatly from region to region and thirdly, the financial allocation available as adequate budget any allocation must be available for capital outlay and running cost. Various waste management authorities requires different types of extensive refuse vehicles that cost a lot to maintain at the commencement of the operations and these vehicles do not often remain serviceable for long due to poor operation, maintenance and non-availability of spare parts.

Solid waste disposal in the final placement, destruction of radioactive surplus, banned pesticides and chemicals, polluted soils and drums containing hazardous materials using approved methods. Several methods exist for the disposal of solid wastes and these range from open dumping to ocean/sea dumping, sanitary land filling composting, incineration, encapsulation, underground disposal and a more systematic method of waste management that includes recycling, reuse, recovery, segregation and reduction.

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environmental or aesthetics.

This research work focuses mainly on the management strategies of solid waste using the waste generated in the University of Calabar (UNICAL) as a case study. Solid waste in the institution and its management can be said to be as old as the institution itself since its birth in 1975. Waste management in the institution started in 1975 under the health and with 8 staffs. In 1995, it was made a unit and named the “Environmental Sanitation and Protection Unit” with a staff strength of over 64 persons. A present, the unit has a staff strength of over 200 persons, 9 supervisors and 1 unit head. The management practice in place in the University of Calabar is daily collection and disposal with waste bins being posted at strategic points across the main campus, library, hostel and staff quarter areas. These bins are being emptied and disposed off when they become full.

Wastes do not only threaten the beauty and aesthetics of the institution but also the very health of its inhabitants. The intention of this research is to examine the strategies that are adopted in the management of solid waste in the University of Calabar.

1.2 Statement of the problem

One of the major problems man faces today is that of solid waste disposal and management as waste is seen littered and scattered everywhere defacing the physical environment. Nobody likes to think of waste but the fact remains that solid waste is a pressing concern of our modern society. Over the years, the amount of the waste generated has grown steadily in part because of increasing population and more so because of changing life-styles and the increasing use of disposal materials. The challenges posed by this waste is that it is generated at a pace much faster than available means to manage it. The increasing rate at which waste is generated is 70% as compared to 30% of effective management and disposal methods. The problem of waste management in the University of Calabar is worsened by the ever-increasing population in the institution which results in an increase in the use of writing papers, pens and other materials.

The smell of offensive odours cannot be taken for granted. This problem is further compounded by hawkers who dump their waste indiscriminately everywhere. The indiscriminate littering of solid waste in our campus has reached an alarming rate. Evidence shows that the indiscriminate disposal of solid waste has a multiplicity effect on the environment. This greatly degrades the environment of its aesthetics and even causes diseases. The increased use of disposable plastics, cups and polythene materials for packaging goods have given rise to new waste disposal problems. Some of these materials are non-biodegradable and when burnt gives rise to air pollution.

The rapid growth of population in the University as people go in pursuit of higher/learning and exposure for a better tomorrow is posing a serious problem as regards waste generation. Dumping of refuse along street corners around the campus and their nearness to hostels, offices, lecture rooms and halls and the time lag in evacuating them constitutes another serious environmental health hazard in the study area. These refuse dumps serve as home for vermins such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches and other vectors of infectious disease.

One of the greatest problems facing humanity today is that of waste management. In all cities and rural areas, waste disposed poses the greatest environmental problem. The rate in which waste is generated, surpasses the rate at which it is evacuated. Upon this premises, one tends to wonder what could actually be responsible for this environmentally unfriendly character. Is it the orientation or the psychology of the people lack of central waste dumps or is it a deliberate attempt of polluting the environment or perhaps the various authorities responsible for waste disposal cannot cope with the volume of waste been generated.

Another problem of solid waste management is the diversity of the waste being generated which results in a variety of potential health and welfare effects, the treatment of which is complicated by the fact that each type of waste often demands specific and yet different methods of disposal and management. Waste is an age-mate of mankind and part of the normal working system of man’s activity on the face of the earth. Though it is an integral constituent of all human activity, its presence today is becoming unbearable causing serious problems in the environment. Waste in ancient times was biodegradable and non-toxic and could hardly cause hazards. Today, copious waste generation pollutes many quarters even in rural areas. Every facet of man’s endeavour now face the danger of reckless thro-away; he wastes food, clothes, money, time, shoes, utensils, furniture, paper, machines, metals etc. It has now come to a point where solid waste stands face to face and side by side with man. The reason is man’s technology to master and conquer his world (environm

The menace of fuel tanker explosion in Nigeria and how to avoid further occurrence

Abstract

The challenges of implementation of open defecation policy in Nigeria

Open defecation refers to the practice whereby people go out into fields, bushes, forests, open bodies of water, or other open spaces, rather than using the toilet, to defecate.

As Nigeria joins the international community to mark World Toilet Day on the 19th of November, Reckitt Benckiser (RB), makers of leading toilet cleaning brand, Harpic, has described open defecation as a great drawback to global public health safety and economic growth.

According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), about 46 million people in Nigeria defecate in the open, with 56 million people estimated to be added to this open defecation crisis during the next ten years.

Dayanand Sriram, West Africa general manager Reckitt Benckiser said that Nigerians needed to join the world to end the menace of open defecation.

“It is important to know that, open defecation has become a global challenge to people, business and the environment. RB has always believed that societal challenges must be tackled head-on through a beneficial partnership between government and the private sector.”

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE OF NIGER DELTA

ABSTRACT

Niger Delta generates higher revenues for Nigeria through its abundant oil and gas resources. The region over the years has been faced with environmental challenges resulting from oil and gas operations. This study is aimed to evaluate the environmental impact of the oil and gas exploration and production on the socioeconomic life of the inhabitants of the Niger Delta. The data and analysis presented in this study relied solely on secondary data from past studies and reports from both governmental and nongovernmental organisations. It has been discovered that the environmental damage has brought about health implications and affected the region’s main sources of livelihood (farming and fishing), causing an increase in unemployment and poverty rate, and low standard of living. Nevertheless, these challenges could be managed by adjustment in the execution of cooperate social responsibility of oil companies, enforcement of existing laws and establishment of new regulations which can safeguard the environment and the people. Keywords: Environment, Socioeconomic life, Oil and

ABSTRACT

Current trend in concrete research is towards finding materials that can partially or fully replace cement. However, too much emphasis is given to compressive strength as the quality index; with little or no consideration given to durability property. The concrete can be strong but not durable especially when it is subjected to chemical aggressive environments. This research therefore assessed the durability characteristics of Portland/cement volcanic ash concrete exposed to chemically aggressive environments. Preliminary tests of the different properties of materials used for this research were carried out. The concrete samples were prepared using 5% and 10% volcanic ash replacements and nominal mix of 1:2:4 with a 0.5 w/c ratio. Cube mould of size 100mm x 100mm x100mm and cylinder mould of size 200mm x 100mm were used to cast a total of 405 concrete samples. Out of the 405 samples, 162 cubes were used to assess compressive strength test while 162 cylinders were used to determine the tensile strength by the split tensile method. The specimens were cured in H₂O, MgSO₄ and H₂SO₄ and tested at 7, 14, 21, 28, 56 and 90 days. Another set of 81 concrete cube samples were also produced and cured in the same curing media for test on abrasion resistance and water absorption test at 28, 56 and  90 days of age. The results show increase in compressive strength of about 8.68% for concrete samples with 10% volcanic ash replacements than 0% replacements cured in normal environment (H₂O) at 28 days. A decrease in compressive strength of about 15.02% was observed for concrete samples with 0% volcanic ash replacements than 10% replacements cured in MgSO₄ at 28 days. Also concrete samples with 0% volcanic ash replacements cured in H₂SO₄ withstood the medium better than the samples with 10% volcanic ash replacements as indicated by 12.78% increase in compressive strength at 28 days. Concrete samples made with 10% volcanic ash replacements have high resistance to abrasion and less sorptivity than 0% volcanic ash replacements in both normal and chemically aggressive environments at 90 days. In conclusion Miango JP 3 is a pozzolanic material having satisfied the requirement of ASTM C618-05. Therefore it was recommended to be used to produce a strong, dense and durable concrete which can be used both in normal and chemically aggressive environments.

An evaluation of solutions to moment method of biochemical oxygen demand kinetics

ABSTRACT
This paper evaluated selected solutions of moment method in respect to Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) kinetics with the aim of ascertain error free solution. Domestic-institutional wastewaters were collected two-weekly for three months from waste-stabilization ponds in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. BOD concentrations (BODc) were determined daily for 8 days using standard method. The BODc were used to determine parameters in BOD kinetics (ultimate BOD concentration and BOD removal rate) using Microsoft Excel Solver, non-linear regression (exponential) and least squares methods (three graphs). Accuracies of these solutions were evaluated using relative error, Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and model of selection criterion (MSC). The study revealed that ultimate BODc was in the range of 1368.7 to 860.6 mg/L and BODc removal rate was between -0.139 and -0.470 /d. The averages of MSC were 4.18; 0.01; 1.49, 1.28 and 1.61 for Microsoft Excel Solver, non-linear and three least square methods (graphs 1, 2 and3) respectively. The result revealed that Microsoft Excel Solver provided an improved solution of moment method, and a good description of BODc removal trend based on MSC and AIC than the other solutions. The study concluded that Microsoft Excel Solver solution to the method is a valuable solution at higher confidence level based on lower values of AIC and high values of MSC.

COMPLETE PROJECT TOPICS:An evaluation of solutions to moment method of biochemical oxygen demand kinetics