THE APPLICATION OF JOHN LOCKE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY TO THE PRACTICE OF DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA FROM 1999 TO 2021

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Throughout the history man has always sought different methods of organizing himself into political states. He needed these methods for the systematic organization of himself according to what is befitting to his nature, since he is both a political and a rational animal that is capable of realizing himself fully in a well-organized political state. And so, the problem and question remains, how well organized and secured is his political society? Which method of such organization could be adopted? Thus, he has to seek ways to organize his political society and ensure his security. Such questions are the problems, which concerned political philosophies and philosophers. It can also be viewed as the major problem of an ideal state as we can see in Plato’s political philosophy. But as much as man’s nature yearns for this perfect and ideal state, where there would be equal right and justice, the idea of the ideal society has almost always eluded him, owing to the complexity of man’s nature. That this yearning has led him to evolve several methods and systems aimed at the ideal political state is very evident in man’s effort to develop numerous political groups and elites. This is also very clear as regards different political parties that are formed by the political elites in Nigerian situation, today.

 

In Nigeria today, there are many political parties. And each group’s intentions are to ensure a reliable and trustworthy party that is capable of presenting a strong and sincere representative who will eventually run for them during elections. However due to people’s wrong notion about politics, they could go to any length provided their dreams are profitably actualized even if it warrants stepping on others’ toes. Whichever means they employ to actualize their dreams, it is important not to overlook the fact that they have good and noble intentions of moving Nigeria forward as it pertains to development and doing away with all forms of corruption.

 

For over forty-five years of the nation’s independence, since October 1, 1960, Nigeria has struggled to entrench democracy and democratic values in the land. The structural imbalance in the polity, which has an over-bloated bureaucratic center, has created a desperate scramble amongst the power blocs to have access to the center, which flows abundantly with milk and honey. This deadly scramble has no doubt resulted in avoidable deaths and death games. The deaths of Harry Marshal, the River state’s political strong man and the ANPP National Vice chairman, Dr. Chuba Okadigbo, a sage, a politician, former Senate President in the National Assembly and the running-mate to the presidential candidate of ANPP, General Muhammadu Buhari in 2003 general elections are eloquent testimony to these facts.

 

Therefore, the political terrain is as murky and muddied as ever. The absence of a normative order has occasioned the rise of individuals and new political parties whose personal interests appear to be more important than the interest of the state itself. This absence of a normative order could be seen as a modern political absurdity, if ever there is any and a negation of a political state. These individuals and parties annul national elections with impunity, abduct or murder state officials with alacrity, rig elections with audacity and raid the national treasury with tenacity. Before them the state is prostrate and the nation is powerless. The abuses of political powers and the corruption of our political elites is becoming the order of the day. And unless concrete efforts are made to demystify governance and leadership, by redressing the rate of injustices, abuses and corruption, the craze for power among our political leaders and elites will not stop; it will continue to increase. Thus, Nigerians must be made to imbibe the culture of a decent life and genuine, meaningful access to wealth through hard work, which could equally exist outside political offices and political power. Truly, the art of governance and leadership must be demystified, in order to bring our elected political leaders to serve the people who elected them to the office with sincerity instead of presenting themselves as Kings and Princes.

AN ANALYSIS OF JOHN STUART MILL’S UTILITARIANISM AND IT’S APPLICATION TO THE NIGERIAN STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Utilitarianism is an ethical and philosophical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximises utility, which is usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people, and in some cases, sentient animals.  The most potent way of determining the usefulness of any good theory is to apply it to reality in order to know the extent to which it can accommodate the existing realities in society. Ogunkoya (2011). It is a version of consequentialism which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong Scheffler(1988). Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism and altruism, utilitarianism considers the interests of all beings equally.

 

Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the history of philosophy. Utilitarianism when applied to law is a functional approach to the understanding of law by observing its basic tenets and purpose in the society. It is an ethical and philosophical theory that states that the best action is the one that maximises utility, which is usually defined as that which produces the greatest well-being of the greatest number of people and in some cases, sentient animals. To the utilitarian philosopher, if an act will produce more happiness than will alternatives, it is the right to do and if it will produce less happiness, it would be wrong to do it in the place of an alternative that would produce more happiness. In short, act so as to produce the most happiness .R.W.M Dias (2007). Utilitarian weigh the consequences of alternatives, pro and con and then choose the alternatives that maximise happiness. The philosophers view that the morally good action is the action that produces the most good1. It holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest numbers. The utilitarian school of jurisprudence considers that utility is the standard for measuring the propriety of our conduct and approach.

 

Utilitarianism has made immense contributions to the understanding of the place of law in society and in decision-making process by the government. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) are the most important classical utilitarian and social reformers. The theories of these philosophers had a major impact in moral theory and approaches to economic, political and social policy. Bentham posited that the function of law in society should be the provision of the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers. Utilitarian can be classified as either act utilitarian or rule utilitarian. Both act utilitarian and rule utilitarian agree that our overall aim in evaluating actions should be to create the best results possible, but they differ about how to do that. Act utilitarian believe that whenever we are deciding on what to do, we should perform the action that will create the greatest net utility. The principle of utility is to do whatever the overall best results. The right action in any situation is the one that yields more utility than other available actions. Rule utilitarian adopts a two part view that stresses the importance of moral rules. According to rule utilitarian, a specific action is morally justified if it conforms to a just moral rule; and a moral rule is justified if its inclusion into our moral code would create more utility than other possible rules. According to this perspective, we should judge the morality of individual actions by reference to general moral rules, and we should judge particular moral rules by seeing whether their acceptance into our moral code would produce more well-being than other possible rules.

 

This thesis established that the Nigerian state is significantly utilitarian and has been ineffective in promoting the human rights and ensuring security of lives and property of its citizen . Many years after Nigeria Political Sovereignty, the prevailing ideas in the democratic literature maintain that democracy has failed and its consolidation  has remained elusive. By this, there have been consistent political instabilities which have characterized persistent attempts to enthrone and also consolidate democracy in Nigeria. Because of this, scholars of diverse socio-economic cum political inclinations have differently proffered several reasons for the failure of democracy and equally the difficulty of its consolidation. In relation to this,  these scholars have prescribed various solutions towards ending the problem of democratic failure and enhancing its survival. Apart from this, some fascinating theoretical explanations were differently raised in the course of the analysis of democracy and its failure in Nigeria.

 

The challenges of insecurity in Nigeria are not external but internal and are caused by Nigerians. Insecurity was the major slogan that the government sworn–in on the 29th May, 2015 employed to win elections in 2015 to displace the government of the Peoples Democratic Party that had been in power since 1999. The masses particularly, the people from the North Eastern zone in Nigeria and Nigerian generally were optimistic that the long-awaited messiah with the magic wand to curb the challenges of insecurity had emerged. Threats to lives and properties have always existed in Nigeria but Nigeria before 1999 had not been a pariah state to the other nations as it is today. Foreign embassies from 2009 to date have been in the habit of issuing caution to tourists from their home country not to travel to some parts of the country because of insecurity. The caution is not abnormal in view of the deaths of many foreigners arising from insecurity in Nigeria. Crimes attracting capital punishment in Nigeria before 1999 were limited to crimes like armed robbery and intentional killing of other persons. These crimes were not as frequent as we have them in Nigeria today. Boko Haram insurgency was the greatest threat to security before 2015 and it was the only terrorist act that accounted for the decimation of the greatest number of people that died between 2009 and 2015. Armed robbery which was the major crime in Nigeria before 2009 was not carried out with the intention to kill but for pecuniary reason. Hired assassination was also another form of threat to life in the period before 2015  and it was directed against perceived political opponents. However, from 2015 to date, insecurity has cast a shadow on the happiness of the greatest number of the people. The increase in the intensity of operation of Boko Haram insurgency has resulted in the aggravated loss of human lives, displacement of people and destruction of properties.

 

The Fulani herdsmen and farmers clashes were relatively unknown before 2015 and where it existed, it was not with the magnitude of loss of lives and properties as it is today. Ritual killing and cultist activities reminiscence of the state of nature and prevalent and have become headlines in the daily newspapers and electronic media in Nigeria. Kidnapping for ransom which started in the Niger-Delta areas, the oil producing region in Nigeria, has spread to every part of Nigeria. Vandalisation of oil pipelines; communal clashes; spouse bashing, and armed robbery now occur frequently in Nigeria. Terrorist act of Boko Haram in the North-Eastern. part of Nigeria; the Fulani herdsmen and farmers clashes in the middle-belt region of Nigeria and armed banditry operation in Zamfara, Kebbi, Kaduna and Katsina States in the North-West region have resulted in the destruction of villages and properties leading to displacement of hundreds of thousands of people from their ancestral villages and painful deaths. The displaced people from this theatre of conflicts are now accommodated in the Internally Displaced Peoples Camps where they depend on humanitarian assistance for survival.

ELECTION IN NIGERIA AND VOTE BUYING BEHAVIOUR

 

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

One of the pillars that support every democracy is elections. Elections seem to have become a major factor in the stabilization and democratization of emerging democracies. It forms an important pillar that places the power to govern with the people. To Boafo-Arthur (2006) elections are important to a nation’s construction and the electorates since it performs the role of a litmus test for democratic institutions. It ensures that democratic pillars including rule of law, ballot secrecy, separation of powers, independence of the judiciary and many more are strengthened. Elections therefore allow citizens to take part in governance. Thus, elections give the citizens the opportunity to select their leaders. Electorates use elections to evaluate how leadership or governments have excelled in all facets of national life such as education, economy, agriculture, corruption, standard of living and others. It is therefore a cardinal process through which power is allocated, and representative democracy is actualized. Elections and more specifically voting are important mechanisms for selecting leaders for political offices in every democracy. They aggregate preferences, help select better public officials, and provide incentives for politicians to act in the interest of the voters they represent (Persson & Tabellini, 2000) since it is through elections that candidates are able to appeal and explain their intended policies to electorates before they are voted into power. Chazan (1987) identifies two main functions of elections in the world and particularly in Africa that is whether to change a regime and its leadership or to seek approval from the electorates to enhance democratic and constitutional transition. Several countries in the world currently select their national leaders through multi-party elections. However, in some developing countries especially in Africa, the quality of elections still varies widely as elections have been plagued with problems such as ballot fraud, intimidation, multiple voting, low voter education, snatching of ballot boxes, violence, giving out of electoral incentives or buying of votes and others (Stokes, 2005; Schaffer, 2007; Vincente, 2008; Kramon, 2009). Just as democratic elections have spread across the globe since the early 1970s, so has electoral incentives and buying of votes. Vote buying has been widespread in many countries that have continued along the path towards democracy. In the words of Vicente (2008), vote buying happens frequently in many parts of the world. Indeed, vote buying which in some literature is referred to as clientelism has a long history. The use of electoral incentives to buy votes has been a frequent practice during electoral campaigns and elections in several developing and developed countries. It was prevalent in the Roman Republic (Yakobson, 1995), Britain and the United States (O’Leary, 1962) and the phenomenon still remains common around the world (Schaffer, 2007). Scholars have documented widespread use of these campaign strategies in countries such as Nicaragua (Gonzalez-Ocantos, Jonge, Mel´endez, & Nickerson, 2012), Argentina (Brusco, Nazareno & Stokes, 2004; Stokes, 2005), Taiwan (Wang & Kurzman, 2007), and Lebanon (Corstange, 2010), as well as African countries like Sao Tome and Prıncipe, Nigeria (Bratton, 2008; Vicente, 2008), Kenya and Ghana (Kramon & Posner, 2013). For example, Hicken, Leider, Ravanilla and Yang (2017, p. 9) account from their paper “Temptation in vote-selling: Evidence from a field experiment in the Philippines” that: “Typically, each voter in a household will be offered a packet with their name on it, and campaigns track who accepted and who did not. Candidates may also engage in a second round of vote buying if they learn that a challenger is offering more money than they are. Campaigns seek to ensure that voters clearly associate the gift with their candidate. For example, the candidate’s flyer may be stapled to packages of food handed out to voters or cash may be attached to flyer or letter from the candidate. Most commonly, candidates distribute money attached to a sample ballot, and encourage voters to take the ballots with them to the polls as a guide. The sample ballot includes not just the candidate’s name, but also allied candidates from other races up and down the ticket.” Vote buying appears in different forms in every society. It may take the form of direct payments to voters. To Schaffer and Schedler (2005), vote buying in its literal sense, is a simple economic exchange. Candidates “buy” and citizens “sell” votes, as they buy and sell apples, shoes or television sets. He adds that the act of vote buying is a contract, or perhaps an auction, in which voters sell their votes to the highest bidder. Parties and candidates who offer material benefits to voters may generally aspire to purchase political support at the ballot box in accordance with the idea of market exchange.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Vote buying is an ongoing phenomenon in the Nigeria political system. It causes a kind of imbalance in the fairness and credibility of election ion Nigeria. The issue of vote buying in Nigeria  caused a lot of unrest in Nigeria  especially for those in the rural communities where the security situation in not at its best. The issue of vote buying is a clog on the wheel of democratic sustenance in Nigeria. Lastly there have been series of studies on vote buying but not even a single study has been carried out on vote buying and democratic sustenance

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of the research work is to Examine Election In Nigeria And Vote Buying: A Case Study Of Ife North Local Government.. The specific objectives of the study are:

1. to determine the relationship between vote buying and democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government
2. to determine the methods used in vote buying in Nigeria election in Ife North Local Government
3. to investigate the factors affecting vote buying and democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government
4. to determine the effect of vote buying on democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study came up with research questions so as to ascertain the above stated objectives of the study. The following research questions guide the objectives of the study:

1. What is the relationship between vote buying and democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government?
2. What are the methods used in vote buying in Nigeria election in Ife North Local Government?
3. What are the factors affecting vote buying and democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government?
4. What is the effect of vote buying on democratic sustenance in Ife North Local Government ?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study on Election In Nigeria And Vote Buying  will be of immense benefit to the people. The study will establish a correlation between  Election In Nigeria And Vote Buying. The study will explore the causes and methods of vote buying in during election and how best to remedy the effect of situation. The study will also serve as repository of information to other researchers that desire to carry out similar research on the above topic. Finally the study will contribute to the body of the existing literature on vote buying and democratic sustenance.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study will focus on Election In Nigeria And Vote Buying. The study will cover on the causes of vote buying and how it affects the democratic sustenance with a special attention to Ife North Local Government.

1.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Financial constraint- Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview). Time constraint- The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Vote buying: Vote buying is a widespread phenomenon. It is usually viewed as a purely economic exchange in which the voter sells his or her vote to the highest bidder.

Electoral fraud: Electoral fraud, sometimes referred to as election fraud, election manipulation or vote rigging, is illegal interference with the process of an election, either by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates, or both

Democracy: Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to choose their governing legislation. Who people are and how authority is shared among them are core issues for democratic development and constitution. Sustenance: In accordance to this study is the ability of the people of Benue State to keep democratic practices safe.

The Influence of Godfatherism in The 2019 General Elections In Nigeria

This phenomenon of godfather is not totally new to Nigerian politics as some of Nationalist and freedom fighters such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Ahmadu Bello, etc., are somehow related as typifying the modern-day operations of the political godfather. The fourth Republic in Nigeria has witnessed these phenomenon rights from inception as soon after the Governors were swear-in in 1999. The political actors and their political godfather were in the verge of contending “who is who” in their state. Prominent among the kingpins in the states are Modu Ali Sheriff(Senator) vs Governor Mala Kachalla of Borno; Olusola Saraki vs Late Mohammed Lawal governor of Kwara State; Jim Nwobodo (Senator) vs Governor Chimaroke Nnamani (Enugu State); Emeka Offor (Chief) vs Governor Chinwoke Mbadinju (Anambra State); Abubakar Rimi (Alhaji) vs Governor Rabiu Kwankwaso of Kano State and Lamidi Adebibu vs Governor Rasheed Ladoja of Oyo State to mention a few

The inter governmental relation and performance of local government in Nigeria

ABSTRACT

The research work examines The inter governmental relation and performance of local government in Nigeria, with special attention on Abuja Municipal Area Council, (AMAC), Abuja. Inter-governmental relations in Nigeria entails formal allocation of powers both vertical and horizontally among various levels of government. In this relationship local government is seen as a third tier or level of government with power to transform their areas of jurisdiction through good governance. Local government is not mutually exclusive of other levels of government and that as such there is bound to be an interaction between the local and other levels of government in Nigeria. The study is a historical and descriptive and adopted the system theory and power theory, to guide as means of vivid understanding of IGR and Local Government. To guide the study, four research questions and three hypotheses were posed. The researcher employed a survey design and a simple random sampling techniques used for data collection. The data collected was analyzed using question while the hypotheses were analyzed using the chi-square. The finding indicated that: There is significant relationship between Inter-Governmental Relationship and local Government in Nigeria. The study therefore, revealed that right from 1954 – till date, local governments have been subjected to all sorts of control by other tiers of government namely, Federal and State governments, following the 1976 local government reforms, it was believe that the situation reforms, it was believe that the situation would improve, but instead, the status quo still remained. The study further reveal that inter governmental relations, among the levels of governments in Nigeria were in disarray due to the conflicts over issues of tax jurisdiction, revenue allocation, IGR, funds transfer, over concentration of power at the centre, illegal removal of elected local government officials among other factors. This lopsided relations has impacted negatively on good governance and by extension inability to implement live touching projects. Based on this, the study posits that for cordial relationship between local and other tiers of status of local government must be clearly spelt out, the issue of joint state – local government should be allowed to function as government with minimal control from the state, election rather than appointment should be the means of choosing leaders at the local level, judiciary should be made to be independent and the undue interference on the local government by the state or federal government has to be properly addressed. Also the present 1999 and 2011 amended constitutions for local to be constitutionally created and not state, there should be direct disbursement of federation allocation to local government account.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE OUTLINE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background to the study
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Statement of the Hypothesis
1.7 Significant of the study
1.8 Justification of the study
1.9 Scope of the study
1.10 Definition of Terms

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Conceptual Clarification
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Literature on the Subject matter
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Area of study
3.1 Research Design and Sources of Data
3.2 Study Pollution and Determination of Sample Size
3.3 Instrumentation
3.4 Procedure for Data Collection and Data Analysis
3.5 Limitation of the Study
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Data Analysis, Findings and Discussions
4.1 Findings of the Study
4.1.1 Test of Hypothesis
4.2 Discussion of the Study
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 Summary of Finding
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations
5.3 Proposal for further studies
References
Appendix I
Appendix II

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

It is a well known fact by practitioners and scholars that local government is a viable tool for rural transformation and delivery of social service to the people. Whether unitary or federal political system; the strategic importance of local government to the development process is not in doubt. However, this is contingent in the relationship that exists among levels or tiers of government (Enefiok and Ekpe, 2014).

According to Karingi,(2003), globally, federalizing necessitates the combination of self and shared rule. It accommodate multi-level government that authorizes autonomous  political units to perform its peculiar functions within a political saturation. Despite the imitating of formal decentrali0zation poli0cies, unsuitable intergovernmental relations can engender these relationship between central and local government. In Nigeria, local government by constitutional provision stands as a district level vis-à-vis federal and state government

Enefiok and Ekpe (2014) posit that the concept of intergovernmental relations took the centre stage at a period when there were numerous and complex problem facing three levels of government. They argued that the concept has its beginning in Nigeria around 1950s with the establishment of advisory body on intergovernmental relations. This was necessary because of numerous and complex problem confronting three levels of government in our heterogeneous society. This interrelationship becomes necessary for the achievement of national integration for a harmonious co-existence of the parts, as well as the whole for sold governance and meaningful development.

However, six patterns of relationship in Nigeria intergovernmental relationship in Nigeria intergovernmental relations a identified by Enefiok and Ekpe (2014) are:

1. Federal-state relations
2. Federal-state local relations
3. Federal-local relations
4. Inter-state relations
5. State-local relations
6. Inter-local relations

This research work this, exosmic the impact of intergovernmental relations on local government Administration, the Abuja municipal Area council (AMAC), Abuja as its concerns, and the consequence of such relationship on good governance and project implementation for development purposes.

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The wave of popular pressure for political reforms that spread across most developing countries in the period stretching from the late 1980s to the mid-1990 culminated in the restoration and establishment of democratic institution. In most countries, where transition to elected government occurred, the most visible sign of the changes that took place was the repositioning of the third tier of government to its proper position for grassroots development. Indeed, general political reform is went hand in hand with economic reforms. Thus, during the 19902 and beyond, a considerable amount of discussion took place and centered on the question of good government to improve the situation in the rural areas (Maidoki and Philip, 2009).

The 1999 Nigeria constitution stipulates the function and powers of the levels of government in such a way that no one level of government can single-handedly perform the functions of service delivery to the people. Cooperation has thus become an important prerequisite for governance (Shah, 2006, cited in Solomon, 2014). Nigeria Federation like most other federal systems of government is characterized by diverse ethnic groups languages, culture, political power. The need to cater for these diverse elements and ensure service delivery at the grassroots level necessitated the creation of local government. According to  Lawson (2011), in a unitary system of government, there is a strong centre and weak constitutes. In a confederal state however, the constituents are stronger than the centre. In a federal system, every unit is granted autonomy, to decide whether to stay in the union or to back out. However, event over the years in Nigeria’s Federation have shown the over-dominance of the federal government vis-a -vis inter governmental relations, which is structurally improper. The existing mechanism and institutions for intergovernmental policy coordination are very weak and need to be important to be improved and strengthened.

Ajulor and Okewale (2011), argued the intergovernmental relations (IGR) provides platform for series of legal, political and administrative collaboration between levels of government with varying degree of autonomy. It is generally referred to as the transaction between levels of government either national or regional or among federal, state and local government. Examining the conflict among the three levels of government, Jihadu (1998.27) points that:

The dynamics of Federal – state local government relations within the Federalist constitutional framework is one of a see-saw between interdependence and co-operation on one hand and conflict on the other hand, between the centre and the units and between the units themselves.

Abia (2010) maintained that local government was made the third tier of administration with some autonomy, which allows for interaction with the central and state governments. The characteristics of the federal government are, inter alia, the separateness and independence of each level of government, mutual non-interference in the distribution, of power, the existence of a supreme court and a court of law to act as an arbiter in intergovernmental dispute.

Solomon (2014) asserts that by the arrangement of the 1999 constitution on the distribution of powers, Nigeria still remains a centralized federation with strong unitary elements. Currently, there are compliments about over-concentration of power in the Federal government and demands for re-structuring of Nigeria by ethnic minority and Niger Delta people. Adamolekun, 91983) and Olopade (1984) were of the view that if Nigeria want to practice “true federalism”. It should go back to its 1963 constitution. Yet there are centrists who continue to support a very strong Federal government in order to counter Nigeria’s history of political instability.

Fadayi (2001) argued that unhealthy relationship between the states and local government in the Nigeria fourth republic. During this period, more than ten local government chairman have, by state execute flat, been remove or suspended from office. According to him, it was this that infuriated the local government chairman an made they to sue the thirty- six governors and their state assemblies. Also, the stop page of the monthly revenue allocations to some states for their conduct of election into newly created local governments made the federal and states governments to be at loggerhead. For example, the complicit between the Obasanjo administration at the federal and governor Bola Tinubu of Lagos in 2003.

The unhealthy rivalry between local government and other levels of government is a result of a number of interrelation factors: undue interference by the states government, unconstitutional removal of the local government chairman by some states governments, shortening of local government chairman tenure of office, joint states – local government account which the former controls and what the perceive to be an attempt by the federal government to relate directly with lo-cal government (Solomon, 2014). This research project will, therefore, examine these challenges in greater details and also considers why they occur in the first place respect to governance, and then, suggest ways it can be controlled.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Local government is not mutually exclusive of other levels of government.

Nwabuze (1983) argued that the functions set aside for local government in the fourth schedule of Nigeria 1999 constitution have to be conferred upon the local government by the State House of Assembly and do not derive from a direct constitutional grant as contained in section 7(6). Therefore, there is bound to be an interaction between the local government and other levels of government.

However, as caption, by the Vanguard Newspaper editorial (1999), it is unfortunately, the relationship has not been cordial because local government complains about undue interference from state government. The Vanguard Newspaper report on Sokoto State government that was council, and the court prohibited it from deducing 3% of its statutory allocation to fund the Sokoto Emirate Council, as passed by the Sokoto State House of Assembly (Vanguard Newspaper, 1999 p27).

In the Nigeria political sphere and governance intergovernmental relations among the levels of government have been in disarray due to unhealthy rivalry. The problem is not unconnected to the dissatisfaction in the distribution of functions among the levels of government and lack of adequate tax powers allocated to the states and local government in relation to their functions, undue removal of local government elected chairman by the state governors through their audit powers, joint state – local government account, and shortening of the tenure of local government chairmen, during other factors.

In previous studies and research work, scholars and researcher have discussed various issues that brings about conflict between local government and others levels of government, but not much work as been done in providing solution to such conflictual relationship. However, a gap which this study attempt to fill by investigating these following problems:

• Is their dissatisfaction in the distribution of functions among levels of government in Nigeria.
• What powers does a state government have to remove elected local government chairmen.
• What necessitate the undue interference in local government affairs by the state government and federal.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to assess the impact of inter-governmental relations on local government administration. It will also evaluate it, determine its effects on the processes of governance success and failure and discuss, likely means by which they can be controlled. The other objectives this research seeks to achieve are:

• To determine the extent to which intergovernmental relations affect local government administration in Nigeria.
• To ascertain the effect of unhealthy rivalry between local government and other levels of government as a result of a number of interrelated factors.
• To determine the relationship existence between local government and state government.
• To make suggestions for policy implication in the light of the findings of the study.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In this study, an attempt will be made to provide answers to the following questions.

1. How does inter-governmental relations influence local government administration in Nigeria?
2. What is the relationship the relationship between inter-governmental relation and local government administration?
3. To what extent do inter-governmental relations affect Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC)?
4. What are the available measures provide in the constitution of control and prevent unhealthy rivalry?

1.5 STATEMENT OF THE HYPOTHESIS

The following hypotheses formulated would be tested, to help provide answers to the research questions:

H_o:       There is no significant relationship between inter-government relationship   and local government administration.

H₁:       There is significant relationship between inter-governmental relationship and          local government administration.

Hypothesis Two                                                             

H_o:       There is no significant correlation between inter-government relations and Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC).

H₁:       There is a significant relationship between inter-governmental relations and Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC).

Hypothesis Three

Ho:      Prospect of IGR can bring about sustainable service delivery in Abuja         Municipal        Area Council (AMAC).

H₁:       Prospects of IGR cannot bring about sustainable service delivery in Abuja Area     Council (AMAC).

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study’s findings will help to inform the administrator of Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) and other government authorities on how to ensure healthy rivalry and the need for accountability to avoid ill relationship among government administrators. The findings are also intended to help policy makers develop and maintain governmental affairs, and provide a platform for transparency, responsible and accountability in resources management. Finally, it is to aid policy maker, managers, government authority to ensure positive inter-governmental relations and to introduce measure to control such and, be able to manage scarce resources and accommodate project development at the local government level.

1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY       

Global demand for infrastructure and service delivery at the local government level is on high demand. Decades of significant service delivery and infrastructural deficit due to under investment and poor maintenance in infrastructural assets is holding back governance, development and economic growth of AMAC and Nigeria local government administration in general. This study will be significant endeavours in promoting positive impact of inter governmental relations.

Assessment of inter governmental relations are not new in the country. There are instances where such exercises are undertaken by the scholars in the social and management science to understand the relevant of this relation as it affect local government in developing countries.

The evaluation of beneficiaries of impact of inter governmental relations in  service delivery satisfaction or lack at the local government level and among other levels of governments in providing road network, health facility, educational facilities, or social services like fire, water, primary health care, school, etc. That is, perception of the general public in the application of inter governmental relation is very much instructive

Moreover, the study will provide recommendations on how to evaluate inter governmental relations on local governmental as well as services delivery in terms of administration of good governance that  ensure prompts efficiency and effectiveness in  Abuja Municipal Area Council.

1.8  SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Though, the concept of inter governmental relation and local government is so broad and significant to the continuous survival of social and economic growth in this period of global democratic phenomenon. The study covers impact of inter governmental relation on local government administration in Nigeria. The study basically Abuja Municipal Area Council.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Local Government:   A unit of administration with constitutionally defined territory and powers, and it is the tier of government closest to the people.
• Administration: The process and activity that involve controlling, organizing and managing of                                        an organization.
• Development: A progressive movement from lower to higher.
• Inter-governmental: A process that involve the interaction between various level of                                                         government, informing the policy formulation and implementation.
• Relations: A cordial means of interaction and communication.
• Transparency: This is the openers of government in the conducts of its activity that involve the                                      people.
• Performing: This is the measure of the efficient with which inputs or resources are unlimited to                                       create outputs.
• Constitution: The grand law book that contains the means of guiding the society.
• Election: A process of selecting representative or preferred candidate by voting.
• Corruption: A dishonest action in the form, pervasion of integrity or immoral acts.
• Management: It is a prudent process of handling activities between personnel and resources to achieve organization goals.

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN JOHN RAWLS AND THE CONDITION OF THE POOR IN THE CAPITALIST SOCIETY

CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Each individual human being says Fagothey is not alone in the world, but lives in company with human beings In other words; each of us is more than an isolated individual. In fact, many living beings thrive better in group, clusters, colonies, or herds in which there may be some degree of cooperation. This therefore, gives us the idea of society. But society in the strict sense can be “formed only by rational and free being since it is union based on agreement about goals”²

However among the basic element for the existence of society are: “cooperation among members, for the achievement of common good; and moral bonds means and end.”³ Based on these elements, society may therefore be defined as “an enduring union of a member of persons morally bound under authority to co-operate for a common good.”⁴ The common good is therefore, the end for which society exists. It is also regarded as “an intermediate end, (in so far as), it is a means toward the ultimate end of each member of the society.”

However, while the collectivists (i.e., the communist and the socialist), stress on making the common good, entity over and above the individual good, the individualists (i.e., the liberal capitalists) emphasize eon making the common good a mere sum of individual goods. But an adequate view of society and the common good must find a place between these two extremes. And that is John Rawls’ theory of (social) justice aims at achieving.”⁵ In other words, in social justice, citizens put in and receive their measure of their social goods from the society in proportional manner. Hence it requires not only a just distribution of the socio- economic out but the possibility of making fresh productivity, so that those who engaged in socio- economic cooperation may be able to increase their income”

The common good is therefore realized only in the individuals who make up society, but it is good that they achieve only by the cooperative interaction of the many. In other words to have a common good that can be the end of society, it is not enough that it concerns several persons. That might give us two interdependent private goods, such we find in contracts of exchange only in wages from his or her labour, each benefits the other, but they have not a common good in the strict sense. To have a common good as end of their joint effort, the employer must be genuinely interested in the welfare of the employee, the employee must in turn, have at heart the success of business; and these two interest must in turn merged into one common enterprise. They must help each other not only accidentally, because their private goods are entangled but essentially because they share in the one same good. For the lack of this common good, the type of employer- employee relationship normally found today, especially in the capitalist society, said to be wanting.

However, because of the dynamic nature of the common good (especial in its concrete sense), due to the dynamic nature of society, the perfect attainment of the common good is never realizable. Thus, man’s problem appears to be rooted in the general imperfection and contingencies that mark his universe. These include the obvious human scarcity and needs and also glaring inequalities of life. These factors are ethically relevant because they tend to affect the life of man adversely. In other words, when human need combines with scarcity, there emerges what M. Rearden calls the “inescapable pressures” of human existence, which seem to create the conflict of interest, that make the issue of right and justice necessary. Justice as one of the cardinal virtues has therefore been postulated as one of the ways of living that would ensure that would ensure peaceful and ordered co-existence in human society, and most importantly for the attainment of common good in that society.

From the time of Aristotle, the word justice has been used in general sense and particular sense. In a general sense, justice is broad as to cover all the virtues that have any social significance. But in the particular sense, justice is that moral virtue which regulates our conduct towards other men. Hence it incline s us to give to each person what is due to him or her. Particular justice could be distributive or commutative justice.

Distributive justice, which Aristotle calls general justice and Thomas Aquinas, “legal justice,” refers to the organization of society in such a way that the which all are expected to contribute in proportion to their ability and opportunity, is available to all the members, for their ready use and enjoyment. It shows itself more in economic, industrial racial and political relations but does not restrict itself to these. It involves everything connected with being good citizens or a good member of society and reaping what ought to be the reward of upright and cooperative social conduct. ‘

However, John Rawls see “justice as fairness”. And in his Theory of Justice, he develops principles of justice to govern a modern social order. Rawls hold that the principles of justice ought to be chosen behind “ a veil of ignorance”¹⁰ In other words, for Rawls, hold that the principles that will eventually emerge as legitimate for guiding the individuals in the society ought to be formulated under a certain condition of fair and impartiality. Rawls’ main aim in saying this is to ensure that common good is not just equally shared but equitably distributed. How this is to be achieved is what Rawls presented in his theory of social Justice. Rawls therefore maintains that any arrangement of society that excludes or hinders certain classes or group within it from their fair share of the common good is a violation of social justice. In capitalist system for instance, insensitivity to the deplorable condition of the poor makes it bad. Rawls” effort in his Theory of Justice is therefore to improve on the capitalist system. It thus tries to remove indifference and insensitivity, to the plight of the poor, out of capitalism and thereby make it more morally acceptable. Its premise is that there is inequality in capitalist society and in this circumstance; the most moral course of action is not to do anything that will worsen the already bad condition of the poor. Rawls therefore opines, “no action, social arrangement or change, should be allowed to take place unless it is going to improve the lot of the poor.”¹¹ This for him should be the standard by which all actions, arrangement or changes, in the society are to be judged. Thus, Rawls’ main preoccupation in his Theory of Justice is how to improve the lot of the poor in the capitalist system.

This thesis sets out to critically evaluate Rawls’ theory of (social) Justice. In doing this ewe shall try to point out some problems with regard to implementing this theory, and suggest some ways through which these problem can be over come.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

“There is inequality in every society” say John Rawls. This creates the classes of the rich and the poor in the society. In the capitalist system according to him, this inequality has worsened to the extent that the rich are getting richer, while the poor are getting poorer. And this he says, constitutes a violation of social justice, since there is exploitation of labourers by the owners of business firm. The problem then is how is this ugly situation going to be corrected? This is what Rawls’ theory of Justice addresses. And so, the problem, which this thesis, whishes to tackle is how, has Rawls’ theory of (social) justice helped in ameliorating the bad condition of less privileged in the capitalist society.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study arose from the pressing need to find some ways of ameliorating the deteriorating condition of the poor in the (capitalist) society. The perversion of justice in the society both in political and economic sectors has resulted in existence of ea wide gap between the rich and the poor in the society. This has in turn contributed in worsening the already deplorable condition of the poor. Thus, this thesis aims at proffering some poor in the capitalist society.

THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The study is limited to discussing how social justice should be applied in the capitalist system, so as to reduce the hardship of the poor therein. However 2, for proper justification of our topic, we shall use Nigeria socio-economic system as a case study.

SIGNIFICANCE O THE STUDY.

It is hoped that this thesis will help to better the condition of the poor in our society by reawakening in the mind of the people, the sense of fairness and equality in dealing with their neighbors.

The study is equally expected to prove that the theory can be converted into practice; by using Rawls’ theory of social justice to proffer solution to problem of exploitation in the capitalist system. When successfully done it would then be ea contribution to the proofs made by many other philosophers of the usefulness of philosophy to practical life.

Also student carrying out further research on this topic, or other related topics, may find this study very helpful, for it will serve as an insight into bad condition of the poor in the capitalist society.

THE EPISTEMOLOGY OF PLATO’S CONCEPTION OF IDEAL STATE

ABSTRACT

Plato introduced his ideal state to salvage bad governance that could spring up from bad leaders. He classified the citizens of his Republic into three categories; Guardian (Rulers), Auxiliaries (Military) and the Artisans (Farmers). He apportioned duties for each of the three classes and conditions that make one a member of either of the classes. He defined duties for both the sate and individuals that make up the state and introduced Justice as a means of assuring peace in the state, which is by the principle of one minding his duties without interfering with others. The individuals owe the state a duty of obedience, while the state on the other hand owes the individuals a duty of security and provisions of other amenities. Finally, Plato’s ideal state is a pace setter for all generations and has made a whole lot of positive impact which prevails over his mistakes throughout the history of political Philosophy.

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Plato was born in 427B.C. at Athens; he was born into a distinguished and wealthy family; his birth, took place some few years after the out break of the Peloponnesian war. This war lasted until he was twenty three years old. This is to say that his experience with this war, made impact toward his ability to sharpen his thought on the relationship between the individuals and the state

More so, Plato’s analysis on the relationship between the individuals and the state was also influenced and sharpened through the political connection of Plato’s family. He had a link with Pericle whose political influence, dominated Athens for a period of about thirty years. Pericle was a democrat to the core and he died at the early state of the war in 427BC. After the death of Pericle, some radical democrats came up and used more ruthlessly, the element of force in the Athenian confederation. According to Plato, “they were ready to act on the belief which Thracymachus expresses that it is natural and sensible to exploit the weak”! This was an ugly experience for Plato, between the agency of the state and the individuals. These radical democrats had all their powers depended on their ability to sway and win the popular support through rhetoric. Their policies depend on popular acclamation rather than what the situation demanded. It was in their hand that Athenian state got humiliated and defeated, due to their inability to do what the mind of the individuals.

After the final fall of Athens, then came on Oligarchic revolution and commission of thirty was set up. Though, they started on a good note, purging the city of perpetuators of evil and later the resorted to savage tyranny. Their tyranny lasted for only eight months and they were divided out and subsequently killed. So the ugly democratic but tyrannical political dispensation and the outbreak in the political scene of Athens contributed in no small measure, to the Platonic idea of what the relationship between the state and the individuals ought to be, the measure to ensure peace and avoid tyrannical leaders.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Right from the ancient days, philosophers are faced with the problem of what the relationship between the individual and the state would be and the structure of the society where the individuals live. On this quest, Aristotle voted earlier that “man is by nature a political animal and thereby needs the existence of others in the society (state) for his survival”² Most is political scholars till date are still faced with this unique problem of what nature, form or kind of state that will be the best organization to enable man to live a good life, which is what man cherishes best. The kind of principle, which will best guide the relationship that exists between the individuals, is part of the existing problem facing political philosophers.

Since the individuals according to John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Thomas Hobbes gave up their right of self and independence governing of them selves to the sovereign state, which gave rise to the civil society. What then are the expectations of the individuals from this civil state that they have formed, by given up their rights of self and independence governance, which is the political obligation of the sovereign state? What also is expected from these individuals in a civil society, so as to sustain peace and harmony and to make this state, what they want of it is also another basic problem facing all political scholars.

SCOPE OF STUDY

Plato dealt with numerous topics in his various works. But this research work is narrowed down to his conception of the motion of the state and notion of the individuals: What the relationship between the individuals and the state is in the Plato’s ideal state. Plato’s three categories of the individuals and the principle that shall be applied in his ideal state so as to maintain peace and harmony among the individuals and classes that make up the state. Also are the respective political obligations of the individuals for the sovereign state and political obligations of the sovereign state for the individuals that formed the sovereign state.

Purpose of the study

Politics has been denoted as one of the most interesting endeavors through all the epoch. The reason for this, been that it concerns man and how he relates with his follow man in a community or groups. This derives from the fact that man as a person is dignified and ennobles as a being and as a result must be treated as such.

However, the purpose of this work; about the ideal state in the political philosophy of Plato, is to view the Platonic conception as it presents enough materials for learned research into the ways of improving man’s life in the society.² Plato conceived government in general to be fundamentally based on competence, that is why he tried to introduce hiss ideal state so as to replace the general conception of governance that involves ruling the people through a democratically elected leaders and which he called the rule of the mob. He went as far as suggesting his ideal state as a veritable replacement for democratic society. This is where the philosopher king will always be at the realm of affairs.

Furthermore, the general purpose of this work is to explore the element of Platonic conception of his ideal state and how it poised to be credible alternative to any system of government and equally on how the Platonic conception of ideal state can be relevant to the improvement of lives.

Moreover, this ideal state contains some comprehensive department of Philosophy very relevant to the improvement of life in society, such as Ethics, Philosophical Theology and Psychology. For Plato, ethics, politics and education are all one and constitute a positive branch of knowledge. Plato believed that the peace of a society depends on the good character of its citizens. This research for the ideal state, lays much emphasis on the righteousness of the individuals, this is why the philosophical logics of the republic might as well be the Socratic used dictum that an unexamined life is not worth living³. this introduces a notable point that even though the ideal state is an aspect of Plato’s philosophy, it is remarkable to bear in mind that for him the ideal state is not so much a form of government in the political sense; rather it is the form of the character of the people who live in it.

More so, for Plato, there is no distinction between knowledge and practice, between right conduct and self-fulfillment, between the needs of the individual and that of the society. Even though Plato knew that in human affair, the idea is not practicable, but he hoped that societies could come very near to this form of community; the ideal type that he referred to in the dialogue.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of this research stems from the fact that not only does the work give a substantive and uncomplicated treatment of the major political ideas of a substantive of Plato as they concern the ideal state, but also, more importantly; it provides an application of the relevant themes and perspectives of these theories to the specific situation in the third word.

METHODOLOGY

In the bid to carry out a successful research work, the researcher extensively used available materials, sourced for information on the internet and read books with similar thematic frame of reference after which the comparative analysis of these work was made.

Secondly, materials such as journals, periodicals etc were subsequently made use of. Finally as somebody who has been in the society and watched the society undergo and experience some kinds of political inequality, to some extent the researcher laid down what he has observed. Thus the method is hermeneutical for it is more of interpretations.

Also, this research work is to be divided into five chapters.

• Chapter one will be on general introduction, statement of the problem, purpose of the research work and definition of terms used in this research
• Chapter two, shall constitute of the literature
• Chapter three will be an analysis of the Plato’s conception of the ideal, which deals more on the relationship between the individuals and the sovereign
• Chapter four comprises of the political obligations in the civil state, and
• Chapter five will be a critical evaluation and conclusion of this research work.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

• EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology is derived from a Greek word “episteme”, which means “knowledge”! and is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitation) of knowledge. And it is also “not only the study of knowledge, but it is associated with a justified belief”³.

• STATE

A state is defined as “a country considered as an organized political community controlled by one government”. This signifies that a state is the political organization of a country with its sovereignty limited to her geographical territory, free from any external control.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE HOBBESIAN STATE OF NATURE AND ITS EXISTENCE IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE/GENERAL INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The facts are clear, loud, distinct, lucid and vivid. They are visible even to the blind, audible even to the deaf and known to everyone and thing around us that the Nigerian state several years after independence still harbours a varied number of elements that existed prior to the setting up of a civil society as embodied in the Hobbesian state of nature.

Antecedent to setting up an organized state Hobbes avers that men lived in a society without laws, authority and morality, no sense of right or wrong, justice or injustice. In it self-interest was the order of the day; this resulted in struggles and conflict making war prevalent among men who lived in perpetual danger and fear of death. According to Hobbes “there was no permanent ownership of anything by anybody; whatever anybody could grab was his own for as long as he was able to retain it. A stronger man could come along and snatch it from him and it would become his until another stronger man also snatches it from him”.¹ This society had no progress, no development, no agriculture and no industry. In it according to Hobbes, “the life of man was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”.

Likened to the Nigerian situation, it calls to question the validity or strength of our laws where we have a case of “complete erosion of our value system(s) such that, corruption and other social vices have acquired the status of virtues and mediocrity has become a norm and legal tender”², where looters of public treasury with impunity walk freely and are celebrated while a commoner with a far lesser degree of crime languishes in detention – justice or injustice? A lot of other criminal acts are being perpetrated daily and offenders with the backing of godfathers get off the hooks without punishments. These expose the corruption and weakness of our legal system and display a great degree of the immorality in our society. Election rigging, exam malpractices, economic and financial crimes, prostitution out of destitution and frustration, political thuggery, hired assassinations and other societal vices confirm and depict the absence of morality in our society.

Besides these, the Nigerian state continues to struggle with ethno- religious, politico-economic and socio-cultural realities of battles, pains and tears that are heart breaking. These are indications of Hobbes’ state of war and insecurity which existed among men in the state of nature and accounts for the collapsing social-economic structural and apparent relative stagnation we face as a nation. All these hinder societal progress, development and creation of more industries because potential foreign investors see the Nigerian state as unsafe. What is more? How else do we say that ours is an identical twin of the Hobbesian state of nature? In terms that lack any form of ambiguity, I hold that that exactly is what we have.

The issues mentioned above are very striking and pose a lot of questions, thus making the need to answer the questions raised and address issues therein an imperative. This is what this essay has set out to tackle.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

It is an obvious fact that Nigeria state is one that embodies a litany of problems which cover the areas of economy, social, political, ethical, religious and otherwise. A critical look at each of these problems would reveal that threads of similarities run across all of them, namely selfishness or self-interest and corruption. The element of self interest as it was in the Hobbesian state of nature, led to strife and conflict which brought about a state of war of every one against everyone. Following an ambivalence of interest, there is bound to be conflict which leads to war and by extension insecurity.

Nigeria presently is not free from these facts and as such one can say that these issues and others to be exposed in this work are similar to what obtained in the Hobbesian state of nature. Is this where we are supposed to be now as a country? How do we have these issues eradicated to have a better Nigeria? Don’t we need a revolution to move ahead? Which way Nigeria? How do we move forward from where we are? The fact that these questions need answers and the need to redress the situation in the Nigerian state which is still seen to be in the state of nature is what has triggered off this essay.

PURPOSE OF STUDY

In the light of the problems enumerated above, this essay aims at taking a critical look at the practical situations in the Nigerian state and how they replicate discouraging elements of the Hobbesian state of nature with a view to advancing possible solutions to combat them.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This work is not just only a comparative analysis of a philosophical postulation and a reality of life; it is a critical philosophical look at the Nigerian state and the status quo. It is going to expose the situation Nigeria has faced over the years and still faces.

The research will be significant because it is going to expose us to the need to eradicate of these issues which are overlooked in our every day living and have come to be accepted as ways of life. It is going to show the risks and dangers these issues hold for posterity and finally, it is going to proffer possible solutions on the way forward.

SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this work lies in its limitedness to the Hobbesian socio- political philosophy and how it relates to the Nigerian situation.

This work is epistemological, historical, anthropological and ethical. It is epistemological as it would expose the notion of the Hobbesian state of nature and lay bare the situation of the Nigerian state following a comprehensive and logical approach. On the historical lane, it will survey the evolution of a civil society and also touch areas in the Nigerian society that lie in the past. Anthropologically, it studies man in society and from an ethical perspective looks at the morality, immorality or even the amoral aspects of issues here discussed.

METHODOLOGY

To fully attain the goal of this essay, our method shall be expository, comparative, analytic and critical. It will be expository in that it will lay bare the issues treated here, comparative because areas of convergence and divergence of the issues treated here will be touched. It will be analytic because we shall give a comprehensive and systematic analysis of concepts raised here; and for the fact that we shall subject issues raised herein to a serious and assiduous scrutiny the method of this work becomes critical.

The methodology of this research is both primary and secondary. In the primary aspects, our major sources shall be the works of Thomas Hobbes to have first hand the notions of his thoughts. On the other hand, our secondary materials would constitute materials from libraries, daily experiences in the Nigerian state, newspapers, magazines, journals, and internet sources.

Hermeneutics is simply an interpretation of history. This is an approach that would be employed in our methodology. Man’s understanding of himself is clearer when taken from a historical perspective as human knowledge is situated in time and varies with the historical features in which the knower finds himself or is living. Man through the hermeneutical process relates with the past to the present, checks and balances the two periods to see whether they compare favorably or whether there is need to make amends. Living without knowledge of history would make us relive past mistakes over and over again.

There are two types of approaches to the hermeneutical interpretation of history

• the Phenomenological approach represented by the likes of Martin Heidegger; H.G Gadammer and Paul Recoeur
• Archeological or Psychological approach proposed and led by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud; and the structuralists led by Levi

More apt to our study’s choice of methodology is the phenomenological approach. Heidegger was the first to suggest this approach; he avers that man is part and parcel of history and to understand him, we must refer to history. This involves the acceptance of the past as it really is and its human component. Since human existential situation determines the course of history, it is therefore important for the past to be made available to the present to save man from falling into the same awful situations of ‘yesterday’. The degree of this understanding depends on the extent of openness and acceptance of facts. There must be a readiness to accept them as they are.

To help achieve our task successfully, this study has been divided into five chapters.

Chapter one has to do with the introductory and preliminary aspects of this work. Here, the perceived problem which gave vent to this research is exposed as well as the purpose of the study, scope, significance and the research methodology. The definition of terms and a brief history of the life of Thomas Hobbes draw the curtain on this chapter.

Chapter two which is the literature review x-rays the views of past authors and scholars on the topic at stake in a chronological pattern showing how they have agreed or differed on this issue at stake.

Chapter three which opens with the prelude to the Hobbesian socio- political philosophy has its major themes as the state of nature, the social contract theory as well as an exposition of the sovereignty concept in Hobbes. Other issues in Hobbes pertinent to his views on this topic are also laid bare in this chapter.

Chapter four deals with the origin of the Nigerian state of nature beginning from the colonial days through the amalgamation, pre- independence days, origin of the Nigerian state of nature and how the state of nature has ruled affairs and life in Nigeria since then. A detailed expose’ of the Nigerian state of nature is also given in this chapter to show how life in the Hobbesian pre-civilized society is replicated in the Nigerian state; the rule of law in Nigeria being head down in slumber also forms a part of this chapter. Another high point of this chapter is a comparative analysis of the thoughts of Hobbes and the Nigerian situation. This concludes our work in chapter four.

 

Chapter five the last of this work houses a critique of this work, a panacea for the Nigerian state of nature where possible steps of moving Nigeria forward will be highlighted and the conclusion which closes the whole work.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Some terms have been used in the course of this work and to eliminate any form of ambiguity or misconceptions the need to undertake here a clear definition of concepts arises.

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS OF WALTER RODNEY’S CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER ONE /GENERAL INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

In recent time, the concept of development is attracting scholarly views, though, difficult to understand, depending on the perspective one is arguing from. Its meaning can not be fully appreciated without reference to human person because it has to do with the realization of personal potentials and self- fulfillment.

In Rodney’s explanation, as contained in his book; How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, the concept of development which many scholars are taking to be economic growth and appreciable level of modernization made us to realize that; we all are agents of development and it is the accumulation of our efforts towards our different societies that determines the level of our development.

Rodney tried to drag his readers out from Plato’s cave of ignorance to the world of light, but they may not welcome the idea because as Plato said, “if they could lay hands on the man who was trying to set them free and lead them up, they would kill him”.1 Rodney was killed in his bid to lead humanity out of the cave of ignorance, slavery, inequality, political insensitivity and man inhumanity to man in Guyana.

Philosophy, as this work contends, serves as a rational and critical enterprise which offers tools and methods for us to evaluate Rodney’s concept of development.

Statement of the Problem

The problem this work is trying to look into is, Rodney’s inability to see development from a philosophical perspective. Depending on the environment and discipline that shaped him, he treated the concept of development from historical materialism with passionate hatred for capitalism and colonialism: forgetting the fact that it is capitalism that set modern society into two camps: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat camp. Without this, there would not have been class struggle which brings about changes and development in the society

Purpose of the Study

Since development falls under the Anthropological aspect of philosophy, it will be considerable to evaluate the concept of development as conceived by Rodney, from philosophical perspective: by bringing out the bases on which authentic development should be build upon, which will help to  disabuse the minds of people for the misconceptions of other disciplines that take development to be increase in economy, infrastructure facilities, body growth, and so on, forgetting the spiritual and moral values which should be the bedrock of anything that should stand as development in human society.

Scope of the Work

The scope of this work is centered on philosophical evaluation of Rodney’s work on development. This research is restricted to journals on philosophy of development and Rodney’s work on development.

Methodology

The method we are applying here are: analytical and critical methods. With analysis, we will be able to know etymological meaning of some strange concepts that will becloud our minds in full understanding of development. By using critical method, we will also be able to understand what should stand as development. For development to be fully appreciated in the human society, it has to be anchored on the stipulated bases.

Significance

Development is a philosophical concept which should not be adulterated in the terminologies of other disciplines such as economics which will take it to be increased in economic growth or increase in GNP or scientific concept of development which is only based in technical advancement or man’s improved ability to manipulate nature. With philosophical ideals, the concept of development will be well articulated.

Organization Of The Study

Accordingly, this work is divided into five chapters. Chapter one deals with introduction and explications of terms, chapter two is on literature review. Chapter three treats areas of development in relation with Marx and chapter four is on the bases for development. And chapter five is on philosophical evaluation of Rodney’s concept of development and conclusion.

 Definitions of Terms

• Alienation:

The Latin origin of “alienation” is alienatio. This noun derives its meaning from the verb “alienare” to make (something another’s, to take away, remove).

• Bourgeoisie :

This means the class of modern capitalist, owners of the means of social and economic production and also those who have the means to employ

• Proletariat:

This means the class of modern wage labour who have no means of production and are reduced to selling their labour power to survive in a capitalistic society.

• Dialectical Materialism :

This means that general Laws of development that discloses and studies contradictions in the materials world.

• Psycho -Somatic:

This means the combination of soul and body structure in their

• Humanism:

This means a concept that encourages man to be more human and to manifest his latent potentialities by exerting them to enrich himself in

• Slavery :

This means a total subjection to a master; it is also the condition in which another owns another human being as a property

• Communalism:

This is an economic system where properties are collectively owned, work is commonly done and goods are equally shared.

• Feudalism:

This means another political ideology in which power belongs to the feudal lords while serfs are those who are working under them.

• Capitalism:

This is an economic system in which means of production, distribution and exchanges are properly owned and managed for personal

• Socialism:

This is a political and economic ideology that advocates the collective ownership of the means of production and control of distribution.

• Communism:

This another political and economic ideology in which means of production, distribution and exchange are shared on the principle of “to each according to his need”.

• Philosophy

The word “philosophy” etymologically originated from two Greek works Philein (to love) and sophia; (wisdom)  these  mean “Love of wisdom”. Love as contained in the above combination is the type of love that thinks of good of the beloved