ABSTRACT

Rice has become a staple food, just like yam, garri and beans.  As a result, the marketing of rice has become very important due to increasing demand of the product.  The study examined the economics of farm-gate rice marketing in Enugu State, Nigeria.  Five objectives and one hypothesis guided the study.  The study covered all the communities in the local government areas in the three Agricultural Zones that produce rice in the study area.   The population of the study consisted of rice farmers/assemblers, rice wholesalers and retailers.  Purposive sampling technique was adopted in drawing the sample.  Data for the study were collected from both primary and secondary sources through the use of pre-tested structured questionnaire, oral interview, personal observations, journals, texts and other publications.  Data collected were analysed using means, frequencies, percentages, marketing margin, gross margin and profit functions.  The major findings were: Majority of the farmers (77.1%) completed at least primary education while all the marketing participants, namely wholesalers and retailers passed through formal education, some up to degree level.  The average hectarage cultivated was 2.77ha, while average rice yield was 1.4 tons, with Nsukka Agricultural Zone having the highest yield.  Uniform measuring unit was found to be lacking among the farmers and the marketing participants.  The marketing margin of the middlemen was found to be 14.3 percent while 85.7 percent was the consumers’ spending that accrued to the producer as his own share of the profit.  The gross margin analysis showed that the farmers/assemblers had the highest gross margin of N34,992.9.  Output, fertilizer and labour were found to influence profit at significant level of 0.05.  They explained 88.3 percent of variation in profit.  Out of this, output alone explained 85.7 percent; fertilizer explained 1.8 percent while labour explained 0.8 percent.  The Farmers were found to be profiteering at the rational areas of the profit functions.  Factors such as low-level productivity, poor market infrastructures, financial constraints were found to be militating against rice enterprise.  Some recommendations were made to help improve the productivity of rice enterprise.  These include the provision of better storage facilities and improved seeds, establishment of uniform measuring units and provision of adequate machineries as well as maintaining the existing ones, provision of chemical inputs such as fertilizers and herbicides at a subsidized rate, provision of loans and credits to farmers with little or no stringent measures to help them expand their scope of operations.   Above all, adequate extension services to our rice farmers on up-to-date scientific rice enterprise should be ensured and the rehabilitations of our rural roads for easy evacuation of farm produce.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background Information

Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production and the interest of the producer is to be attended to, only in so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer (Smith, 1990).  Production and marketing are interrelated that any defects in one would readily affect the performance of the other.  Every effort should therefore be made to ensure that both farm and industrial products are well distributed to the ultimate consumers (Kohl & Downey, 1972).

The marketing of any commodity is a specialized technique and demands proper organisation.  In case of agriculture and particularly rice products, the marketing aspect is even more important and demands a proper organisation, considering the increasing demand of the products (Ikeme, 1990).  Efficient marketing system creates and activates new demand by improving and transforming production and by seeking and stimulating customer’s links.  It guides farmers to production opportunities and encourages innovation and improvement in response to demand and price (Kohl & Downey, 1972).

Olukosi & Isitor (1990) remarked that it is within the marketing system that price allocation of resources, income distribution and capital formation are determined.  Care (2004) described marketing as a machine that directs production along the line most suited to the consumer requirement.  Thus, production is limited by the extent of marketing.  Where the local markets are too small to absorb the increased output of the farmers and the prospects for moving the local gluts to areas of scarcity are poor, then the producer incentives to production are likely to be dampened.  Where the local market with poor absorptive capacity is the only outlet, the farmers will be constrained to make their production decision or plan with the local market in view.  Ikisan (2004) highlighted the contributions of agriculture and food marketing towards an attempt to improve rural income in developing countries.  According to him, the inequality of income between the rural and urban areas draws people away from agricultural production and places greater stress upon the infrastructure and social services of a country’s towns and cities.  According to Crawford (1997), marketing is a leading sector in development.  It stimulates and sustains the transition from traditional to marketing oriented economy.

Mame (2006) also asserted that a guaranteed market for farmer’s produce was a ready invitation to produce more.  He further stressed that the marketing arrangement in a community must ensure that what was produced was sold or stored.  Kohls & Uhl (1972) suggested that products should not even be produced at all unless it has a market.  Marketing therefore begins with production on the farm.  Hays & McCoy (1978) in their study of grains marketing in northern Nigeria emphasized that an effective agricultural marketing system facilitated optimum allocation of resources in agricultural production and contributed directly to the total product as it increased price, time and form utility.

Rice is the world’s most important staple food crop.  More than four-fifths of the world’s rice is produced and consumed by small-scale farmers in low-income and developing countries.  More than half of the world’s population relies on rice as their major daily source of calories and protein (FAO, 2003).  Rice is the most important and extensively grown food crop in the world (USDA, 2004).  In fact rice has become a staple food in Nigeria, just like garri, yams, cassava, millet and probably the most important food grain, permeating states, religion, tribes and cultures (Arene, 1995).  It commands a prime position among other cereals grown in Nigeria.  Among other grains, it was second to wheat in terms of total world production with 34 million tones recorded in 1975 (FAO, 2002).

Rice is the main source of food energy and an important source of protein providing substantial amounts of the recommended nutrient uptake of zinc and niacin.  It is very low in calcium, iron, thiamin and riboflavin and nearly with no beta-carotene (FAO, 2003).  The major part of rice consists of carbohydrate in the form of starch, which is about 72-75 percent of the total grain composition.  The protein content of rice is around 7 percent.  The protein of rice contains glutelin, which is also known as oryzenin.  The nutritive value of rice protein (biological value = 80) is much higher than that of wheat (biological value = 60) and maize (biological value = 50) or other cereals.  Rice contains most of the minerals mainly located in the pericarp and germ and about 4 percent phosphorus.  Rice also contains some enzymes (USDA, 2004).

 

Table 1:  Nutritional Value of Edible Portion of Rice Per 100 Gram

Type of Rice	Energy (Cal)	Protein (g)	Fat (g)	Ca (mg)	Fe (mg)	Thiamin (mg)	Riboflavin (mg)	Niacin (mg)
Raw (milled)	345	6.8	0.5	10	3.1	0.06	0.06	1.9
Parboiled (milled)	346	6.4	0.4	9	4.0	0.21	0.05	3.8
Flakes	346	6.6	1.2	20	20.0	0.21	0.05	4.0
Puffed	325	7.5	0.1	20	6.6	0.21	0.01	4.1

Source:  USDA (2004)

Over the years, greater percentage of rice output in Nigeria has been from the rural small-holder farmers.  It has been observed that Nigeria was virtually self-sufficient in rice enterprise up to the mid 70’s (WARDA, 2004).  The self-sufficiency level fluctuated between 96.3 percent and 99.8 percent between 1963 and 1975.

However, since 1976, the level has dropped drastically to 41.46 percent in 1978 following sharp increase in the quantities of rice imported.  The major reason for the decline in self-sufficiency is the dramatic increase in aggregate per capital income following the oil boom, urbanization and changes in consumption patterns and the effects of government food importation policy which aimed at increasing the availability of food at reasonable prices under the National Supply Company (WARDA, 1981).

With the ban on importation of rice in 1986, as a structural adjustment measure, Nigerian government both at the state and federal levels stepped up effort to promote the local production and marketing of rice through incentive schemes and programmes (Mbanasor, 1999).  These agencies and programmes, such as Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA) established in 1992, the Community Banks established in 1990, the Rice Production Stabilization Programme (RPSP) of 1988 and the various states’ Grains Boards among others, were introduced to assist in the production, marketing and distribution of rice.

Considering the importance of rice to man and in national development, the Nigerian government as well as individuals have made several attempts to increase commercial rice enterprise but their efforts have been beset with a lot of constraints, such as infrastructural and marketing problems and very high and rising costs of labour and equipment.  Thus, a progressive and chronologically receptive marketing system can help promote economic growth since increasing the marketability of rice will stimulate production.  So, the ever-increasing demand for rice products makes the marketing of rice a significant area to investigate.

1.2   Problem Statement

The demand for rice in Nigeria is growing at a faster rate than domestic supply.  The domestic supply is 3 million metric tons per annum, while the demand is 5 million metric tons per annum.  This leaves a wide gap of 2 million metric tons which is the highest in Africa (FAO, 2002).  In order to make up for the inadequacy in domestic supply of rice, imports have increased steadily accounting for up to 60 percent of the total supply, a situation which has continued to drain the country’s foreign exchange (Momoh, 2007).  This has led to increased poverty, declining growth and competitiveness.  It has also led to decrease in domestic production of rice and over dependence on rice importation.

Central to the issue of inadequate domestic supply of rice is the problem of efficiency of agricultural marketing system.  Inadequate marketing of agricultural produce has been one major problem limiting agricultural expansion (Care, 2004).  Rice farmers and domestic traders are constrained by a number of factors such as infrastructural and market facilities, costs of equipment, price differentials and the structure of the market.

Most of our roads, especially the rural roads where these foods are produced are not accessible and communication network is inadequate, making it more expensive for the food to reach the market.  Market facilities – such as transportation, already existing market, warehousing – are factors that are likely to influence the efficiency of the marketing system.  This is because without a niche market, farmers will not produce crops (Ikisan, 2004).  Also, the wide gap between rural and urban prices weakens the farmers’ morale thereby reducing productivity and in some cases stoppage of production (Care, 2004).  High rising cost of labour and equipment also constitutes a major hindrance to rice marketing, especially these days that family labour is not readily available.

Most studies on rice dwelt on production.  These include the works of Nwoye (1997) and Onoja (2008). Nwoye (1997) worked on the economics of rice production by small-holder farmers in Anambra state, while Onoja (2008) studied the efficiency of rice production under traditional small-scale farmer-managed irrigation schemes and rainfed systems in Kogi state.  There are some works in the area of marketing of rice such as the works of Orjiekwe (1995), Ogbuakanne (1998) and Maduchie (2003).  The study by Orjiekwe (1995) focused on the prospects and problems of rice marketing without considering the marketing channels as well as the marketing margins; the study by Ogbuakanne (1998) had its main thrust on the difference between the producers and the middlemen margin; while Maduchie (2003) determined only the influence of socio-economic characteristics of the marketers on profitability of rice.

All these works dealt with gross margin of rice marketing without considering the influence of producer and farm input prices on the farmers’ profit.  In the light of the above, this study attempts to focus more on producer profit by determining the effects of producer and farm input prices on the profitability of farm-gate rice marketing in Enugu State.  This is with a view to identifying the variable factors that influence the profitability of farm-gate rice marketing and drawing implications on farmers’ income and welfare.

1.3   Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this research is to study the economics of farmgate rice marketing in Enugu State.  The specific objectives are to

• examine the existing market structure and marketing channels for rice in the state;
• estimate the profitability of farm-gate, wholesale and retail rice enterprises in the state;
• analyse the factors that affect the profitability of farm-gate rice enterprise in the state;
• identify and describe the problems of the participants in rice marketing activities;
• suggest ways of improving the marketing of rice in Enugu State.

1.4   Research Hypothesis

The null hypothesis that was tested was that profitability of rice marketing at farm-gate level was not affected by producer and farm input prices.

1.5   Justification of the Study

The ever-increasing importance of rice as food crop in Nigeria calls for effort to increase its enterprise.  This is more so when improved marketing technologies for rice enterprise are available.  Small-holder farmers have been constrained from increasing their enterprise, despite increasing demand for the product.  It is important therefore that the practices adopted by the farmers are evaluated and the profitability or otherwise of the rice enterprise as well as its constraints to increasing rice marketing be examined.

The study could hopefully provide clearer insight into the economics of rice marketing and be useful in assisting agricultural policy makers and national development planners in their formulation of national policies especially as it affects rice marketing in the country.

The findings would also be useful to research scholars interested in this or related topics as information and data would be made available to them.

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POTENTIAL FOR PARTICIPATORY FOREST MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE IN COMMUNITY FORESTS CONSERVATION IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

                                                        TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page                                                                                                                    i

Certification                                                                                                                ii

Dedication                                                                                                                  iii

Acknowledgement                                                                                                      iv

Table of Contents                                                                                                       v

List of Tables                                                                                                              viii

List of Acronyms                                                                                                        ix

Abstract                                                                                                                      x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION                                                                    1

• Background of Study 1
• Statement of the Problem                                                                          4
• Objectives of the Study 6
• Research Hypotheses 7
• Justification 7

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW                                                      9

2.1Deforestation in Nigeria                                                                                        9

2.2 Nigeria Forestry Policy                                                                                         11

2.3 Forest Management and Conservation in Nigeria                                                13

2.4 Sustainable Forest Management in Nigeria                                                          16

2.5 The Concept of Participatory Forest Management                                               17

2.6 Rational For Participatory Forest Management                                                    18

2.7 Incentives for Local People in Participatory Forest Management                        21

2.8 The Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge                                                           23

2.9 Theoretical Framework                                                                                         25

2.10 Analytical Framework                                                                                        27

 

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY                                                             31

3.1 Study Area                                                                                                            31

3.2 Sample Procedure                                                                                                 32

3.3 Method of Data Collection                                                                                   33

3.4 Method of Data Analysis                                                                                     33

3.5 Model Specification                                                                                              33

3.5.1 Probit Model                                                                                                      33

3.5.2 Likert Scale Rating Techniques                                                                         35

3.5.3 Contingent Valuation Method                                                                           35

 

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS                                         37

4.0 Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents                                            37

4.1.1 Age Distribution of Respondents                                                                      37

4.1.2 Sex of Respondents                                                                                           38

4.1.3 Educational Level of Respondents                                                                    38

4.1.4 Annual Income of Respondents                                                                                    39

4.1.5 Occupation of Respondents                                                                              39

4.1.6 Respondents Household Size                                                                            40

4.1.7 Respondent Usage of Forest                                                                             40

 

4.1.8 Environmental Problem                                                                                     41

4.1.9 Types of Forest                                                                                                  42

4.1.10 Deforestation Pattern                                                                                       43

4.1.11 Intensity of Forest Management Practices                                                      44

4.1.12 Factors Affecting Respondent Perception to the Use of PFMS                     47

4.1.13 Probit Model Result on Perception                                                                  48

4.1.14 Probit Model Result for WTP (Variable Explanation)                                    50

4.1.15 Empirical Analysis for WTP                                                                            51

4.1.16 Constraints to Establishment of PFMS                                                           52

 

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION          56

5.1 Summary of Findings                                                                                           56

5.2 Conclusion                                                                                                            57

5.3 Recommendation                                                                                                  58

REFERENCES                                                                                                        60

Appendix I: Questionnaire                                                                                        68

Abstract

Many forest reserves in the country were originally set up in recognition of the importance of forest. However, management of existing forest land is appalling. In recent years, there have been high rate of deforestation in Bayelsa state. There is therefore a need for proper management of forest and its resources. The study analysed the potential for the use of participatory forest management structure in the conservation of forest resources in Bayelsa state using a sample size 150 respondents that were obtained using a multistage sampling technique. Three out of the eight local government areas in Bayelsa state (Ogbia, Yenagoa and Ekeremor) each reflecting the three agricultural zones. Interviewed schedules and structured questionnaire were administered to elicit information from the respondents. Data gotten from both primary and secondary sources were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics which include: frequencies, means, percentages, probit regression model and likert rating scale. As regard the socio economic characteristics of the respondent, the result shows that majority  (66.25%) were male while most(40.8%) of them were in the age bracket of 41 – 50 years, closely followed by 31 – 40 years (23.1%), Also, household size was majorly(40%) in the bracket of 5 – 8, with a mean household size of 7. Educationally, majority (47.0%) attended primary school, while 5.4% attended higher education. The results reveal that the fresh water swamp forest represent the highest concentration of forest in the locality. This was closely followed by mangrove forest (23.1%) and the riparian forest (15.4%). Most of the management practices were not observed, thus leaving the forest in a grave situation. However findings reveal that traditional oriented management was actively practiced although in a limited proportion. As regard the perception of the local people to the use of P.F.M.S for forest management, four out of the nine variables used in the probit regression showed positive and significant contribution to the variation in the perception of the use PFMS.  These include; educational status, occupation, benefit from forest and as mechanism for conflict resolution. These factors help in explaining the variability in the perception of the people in the use of PFMS. The other variable; environmental problem and annual income were positive but not significant. In terms of the willingness to pay, three of the eight variables tested showed positive coefficient and were significant. These were, age, forest benefit, and gender. The likert rating scale indicates that some constraints such as lack of funds, insufficient education/publicity, lack of political will, corruption, lack of well trained staffs came out top in the ranking of challenges or constraints to the establishment of PFMS. It was therefore recommended that traditional resources management should be promoted more so as it gives the local people the opportunity to partake in forest management and also the diversification of the economy so as to divert the attention of the rural dwellers on the excessive exploitation of the forest.  

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

 

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

            The term forest embraces a large variety of landscapes vegetation formation and ecosystem (Obot, 1997).  Forest contains a number of natural resources which develop their distinctive value, when wisely used and harnessed in a sustainable way or acquire environmental threat characteristic when over exploited. Nigeria forest, like elsewhere in the world are important for the ecosystem services they provide, including watershed protection, climate control, and animal species (Nigerian environmental analysis 2002). This forest also provides valuable commercial timber sources and other commercially harvested products such as resin, spices, rattan and many more. The rural populace also benefit largely from forest resources as a source for fuel wood and building materials and for a myriad of non tree forest products (NTFP) with various uses as food, flavouring, medicines, various domestic use and also in some case for their traditional values.

Before independence, the available forest resources could adequately cater for the country’s requirement, both to meet the export and local consumption. However, after independence, there was pressure on the forest resources to generate income to support the young economy and meet the need of the ever increasing population (EC-FAO 2003). The bulk of the forest and forest resources that remained hitherto relatively undisturbed until the 1980, have been lost in the last two decades. In 1992, forest accounted for only 9.61% (8.874.225.ha) of Nigeria’s total land area measuring about 923,768,000ha. Okonta (1998) noted that during the period 1980, it was estimated that 43.48% of the total forest ecosystem had been converted to other uses as a result of human activities. Current estimates put the rate of forest depletion at 3.3% per year (FAO, 2005). Based on this, it has been estimated that the country will lose all her forest by the year 2020. FORMECU (1994) projected the yield from the forest estates between the year 2000 and 2010, putting it at a total of 8273m² for 2000 and 7316m² for 2010, implying that less wood resources would be available from the forest in the future if the current deforestation rate is sustained. Forest production has fallen, creating an imbalance between supply and demand. From its previous status as a significant exporter of forest products Nigeria has become a net importer (Status of tropical forest management, 2003). The continued loss of Nigeria’s tropical forest has taken its toll on the county’s biodiversity resources. Nigeria has a diverse collection of flora and fauna, including 274 species of mammals, 830 species of birds and 5,081 plant species out of which 0.14% of the animal species is threatened and 0.22% is endangered. Similarly, the estimated 70% of the rural poor are in great danger as it has been established that the poorest often suffer most from the consequence of environmental degradation as a result of their immediate dependence on the natural resource base for their necessities (Soussan, 1998).

In an attempt to bring to a halt, the deplorable state of forestry in Nigeria, forest reserves were constituted in the early twenties and communities in the past never tempered with the reserves as they obeyed and respected the law that forbade any form of encroachment into the reserves (Amika, 1993). This was partly due to low population density. But with increased local population, migration, land hunger, cash squeeze, food scarcity and awareness, people’s attention turned to the forest. Together, the national parks cover about 22,592 km², which is about 2.5% of the country’s landmass. They are owned and managed exclusively by the federal government hence, leaving no room for local participation. However,  Ezealor (2002),  Aminukano and Marguba (2002),  stated that protection of habitats and species has long been practiced by various cultures in Nigeria through their preservation of groves and other distinctive habitats for religious, ceremonial and hunting purposes. Marguba (2002), further reported that Nigeria’s first modern forest reserves were created in 1887. The first forestry act enacted in 1937 established the forest reserve system under the state government. A more comprehensive forest law was latter established in 1956 – the law of preservation and control of eastern Nigeria. By 1950 forest reserves covered about 8% of the country’s land area and gradually rose to 11% by 1980. Thereafter, an apparent inability to formulate policies and implement led to the current situation whereby even protected areas are being de-reserved. Also these forest reserves have been seriously neglected and received little or no improvement in terms of investment and management.

Failure of most conservation schemes necessitates scholars and policy makers’ reconsideration of the role of community in resource management, as there is a real danger of worsening social conflict and degradation fueled by over exploitation of natural resources. The tropical timber organization defines sustainable forest management as the process of managing forest land to achieve one or more clearly specified objectives of management with regards to the production of a continued flow of desired forest products and services without undue reduction in its inherent values and future productivity and without undue undesirable effects on the physical and social environment (Babier, 2005).

Current discourse governing community based conservation policy emphasizes the role of community in bringing about decentralization, meaningful participation and effective conservation (Fisher, 1999). Hence there is need to evolve resource management mechanism that could arrest the decline in future of resources and for the mechanism to attained full objectives, they must be community based. Feyerabrand and Taronwski (2005), argued that participatory management is a partnership among social actors with legitimate interest, capacities and commitment regarding the natural resources of the state with term of partnership specifying management factors of all the component body.

In Nigeria, Enugu and Cross River States have taken giant steps to combat deforestation by establishing a forest management committee involving local communities in the management of reserve areas. Wily (2002), stated that the first initiative was the Ekuri community initiative which began in 1992 in Cross River State. Both reserved and unreserved forest is getting involved in community forest initiative.

Ogar (2008), asserted that the concept of participatory forest management committee in Cross River State is yielding significant results. However, the same cannot be said of Bayelsa State which bestrides much of Africa’s largest wetland, and Nigeria’s thriving petroleum business but has no formalized properly managed forest or wood industry (Azaki, 2003). The forests are extensive and are often regarded as inexhaustible with the result that little attention is given to conserving of these resources. Ogon (2006), states that natural resources found in the region presently suffers from the well known “tragedy of the Commons” as the right of access is collectively shared creating room for competition without rules of engagement. It has been estimated that about 50% of mangroves in Nigeria have been lost as a result of deforestation (World Resources, 1990).  Hence, there is need for government and other stakeholders to work together so as to salvage the forest from total extinction.

 

1.2   STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM         

Many state forest reserves in the country were originally set up in recognition of the importance of many tree specie and the associated flora and fauna around the country. Within these forest reserves are many endemic plant and some that are commercially valuable like Mahogamy and other hardwoods. Most of these forest reserves are now mostly protected on paper as they continue to be subjected to official and unofficial unsustained logging, and virtually unrestrained firewood and plant collection.

Nigeria’s 2000 – 2005 deforestation rate was about 3.3% per year implying that it lost an average of 410,000ha of forest annually (FAO, 2005). Management of existing forest land is at a parlous state because many of the forestry department saddled with the responsibility of managing the forest and its resources are becoming increasingly incapacitated due to dwindling resources in terms of funds, manpower, logistic and poor data.

Even when concessions are granted legally for harvest, they have no inventory data to backup the sale licencing, (Akindele, 2003). According to Sanwo (2005), 70% of the total timber extracted in high forest states in Nigeria is stolen, with no record kept. Not only is poor storage of timber common, but the dearth of technical information on other tree species. Thus some species such as well known Iroko, Obeche, Mahogamy etc are over exploited while the non popular ones maybe intact. To worsen issues, forest conservation initiative in Nigeria, for instance, National forestry programme are not all embracing. Little has been done in involving rural people in the management of forest resources or even evolving policies to help them to initiate forest management plans for their community forest (Chukwuone, 2007).

Presently in Cross River, there are about 43 registered FMC, (Forestry Association of Nigeria, 2003). Conversely, Bayelsa state is yet to follow this noble path of establishing, local forest management committee to jointly supervise the extraction of forest resources in the state in spite of its significant role in rural poverty amelioration and most importantly in its ability to reduce the severity of flooding and erosion in the riverine community as well as biodiversity conservation.

The general management and conservation of the ecosystem in the Niger Delta nay Bayelsa has been very limited. Indeed very little attention has been paid to the conservation and management of the mangrove ecosystem (Azaiki and Nkasiosido 2002). There is no organized plan for proper management of forest resources even as there is also no national forest reserve in the state. The major problems, which militate against good management of the mangrove vegetation, include frequent oil spillage as well as the uncontrolled exploitation of the mangrove species. There is also the inaccessibility of the mangrove forest by state official due to the remoteness of the forest thus offering huge opportunities for illegal logging.

Powel (2000) noted that the forestry department in Bayelsa state is ineffective. This is corroborated by a 2008 report of the Bayelsa State department of forestry which states that the forestry guards are only three (3) in number, which is rather too few to cover the entire state. Also, the acute shortage of forest superintendents and other allied staff of the forestry department   has led to inadequate and ineffective monitoring of the forest thus resulting into massive exploitation of timber trees and non timber forest products (NTFPs) e.g. cane rope, chewing sticks. Records have it that between 1970 and 1999 the major petroleum exploitation and exploration activities has accounted for about 3-6% of the mangrove forest depletion in River, Bayelsa and Delta, (Azaiki, 2003). Futhermore, oil companies’ operational roads have provided easy access for logger of timber both for felling and evacuation, numerous escape routes for timber trafficking (Amaruo, 2000). These have caused an incalculable reduction of the natural resources base and a progressive decline of the productivity capacity of the reserve ecosystem. These indications are manifested in the steady economic regression and stunted infrastructural development of the stakeholder communities. Worried by the imminent displacement from their fragile means of livelihood, youths have often resorted to violence as an expression of resistance to extinction.

There is therefore, the need for the official involvement of local people in protecting the remaining land within and outside the reserves in Bayelsa state. This study hopes to assess the potentials for such initiatives in the state.

 

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The broad objective of this study is to determine the potential of participatory forest management structure in the management of community forest in the state.

The Specific Objectives are;

1. describe the socio- economic characteristics of the respondents, types of forest and deforestation pattern in the study area.
2. describe the forest management practices in Bayelsa State.
3. determine factors affecting the perception of local people to the use of community based forest management committees.
4. determine factors affecting the people’s willingness to pay for community based forest management committees.
5. identify constrains to the establishment of participatory forest management committee.
6. make policy recommendations based on findings of this study.

 

1.4           RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 

Based on the stated specific objectives of the study, the null hypothesis will be tested as follows:

Ho: Socio economic variables do not influence the perception of the local people to the use of participatory forest management structure.

Ho: Socio economic factors do not significantly influence the local people willingness to pay for community based forest management structure.

 

1.5      JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Economist now recognizes that, along with physical and human capital, the natural and environmental endowment of a country should be viewed as an important economic asset, which is referred to as natural capital (Babier, 2005).It is worthy to note that the management of this natural capital stock which is a major component of environmental economics is critical to the country`s ability to achieve sustainable economic development.                                                                                                                        Bayelsa State, endowed with rich forest has over the years lost some of its forest land due to deforestation. As such, the livelihood of the rural population who depend mostly on the forest for survival has been visibly impaired by excessive exploitation of forest resources. In most developing countries participative forest management initiative has been adopted in an attempt to address the issue of environmental sustainability .This has largely come about due to an increasing recognition of the ineffectiveness of the state to achieve such sustainability. Recent policies have been drafted that aim to achieve these outcome, which strongly articulate the need for the participation of local people in the management of forest resource both within communal and on state owned forest (Michelle, Anthony, Isla, 2005).

The result of this study will be useful to the department of forestry in Bayelsa state and state government for formulation of policies for conservation of forest resources and in making forest management exercise participatory. Also NGOs will benefit tremendously from this study as it will be easier for them to develop projects in this sector. Finally, it is hopeful that the result of this study will inspire other researchers to research more into forestry economics/management as there appear to be dearth of information in this direction in Bayelsa state.

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THE IMPORTANCE AND USEFULNESS OF PINEAPPLE PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) belongs to the family Bromeliaceae. It is a perennial monocotyledonous herb with a terminal inflorescence and fruit. Pineapple is a native of Southern Brazil and Paraguay where wild relatives occur. The crop was spread by the Indians up through to South and Central America to the West Indies. Spanish traders introduced it into the Philippines and may have taken it to England in 1660. By 1720, the crop was grown in green house in England, from where it came to West Africa in  the 18^th century (Sampson, 1986; Ubi et al. 2008). According to Ubi et al. (2006), the crop is drought tolerant and well adapted to the tropical acid sand with pH ranging from

4.5 to 6.5 and the crop is propagated by new vegetative growth. Pineapple have oval to cylindrical shape fruit and develops from many small fruits fused together. The Pineapple fruit may be dark green, orange, yellow or reddish when the fruit is ripe for harvest. The fruit is both juicy and freshly with the stem serving as fibrous core (Sampso, 1986).

 

 

Collins (1980) and David and Adam (1991) stated that the primary area of world production of pineapple are Philippine, Brazil, Mexico, Australia and parts of Africa. Pineapples are produced in many tropical region of Africa, where rainfall are adequate and are mostly consumed locally (Alika, 2005) while pineapples are produced and even exported by Kenya, South Africa, Ivory Coast and Nigeria (Rice et al. 1990).

It is cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries. Annual world production has tripled during the last 30 years and now exceeds 12 million tonnes. Most of this production (70%) is locally consumed as fresh fruit. World trade mainly consists of processed products of which 80% canned slices (1,065,000 tonnes) and juice (215,000 tonnes) is supplied by Thailand and the Philippines. The fresh fruit market (680,000 tonnes) is dominated by the Philippines, Costa Rica and Côte d’Ivoire which supplies 60 percent of the European market, the leading importer with more than 226,000 tonnes (FAO, 1994; Loeillet, 1996). Thailand is the leading pineapple producer (16% of world production), followed by Brazil (13%) and the Philippines (13%), India (8.9%) and China (7.3%). Important American producers are Colombia (329,300 tonnes), Mexico (301,407 tonnes), Costa Rica (260,000 tonnes), and the U.S.A. (Hawaii and  Puerto Rico, 301,000 tonnes). About 70% of the world production and 96% of the pineapple used by the processing industries comes from one cultivar, „Smooth Cayenne‟. The cultivar Queen has occupied small specific niches of high quality and expensive fresh fruit. Recently, the pineapple industry has responded to the increasing demand for fresh pineapple in the temperate markets with the introduction of more attractive cultivars such as „MD2‟, also named „Golden Ripe‟.

Pineapple is the second fruit of importance after bananas, contributing to over 20 percent of the world production of tropical fruits (Coveca, 2002) with Thailand, Brazil, Philippines and China the main pineapple producers in the world. Other important producers include India, Nigeria, Kenya, Indonesia, Mexico and Cost Rica and these countries provide most of the remaining fruit available. Since 1960 pineapple production worldwide has risen by 400% and the world fresh/juice/canned pineapple trade has nearly doubled in the last 10 years. Pineapples dominate the world trade of tropical fruits although other fruits have gained market share. Statistics from the year

2002 indicate that the pineapple trade took 51% from a total of 2.1 million tonnes of the whole fruit market with mangoes taking second place with 21.7% (FAO, 2002).

Nigeria takes the lead as the highest producer in Africa (Wobeh, 2008). Current production figure showed that Nigeria ranked 6^th on the list for world pineapple production with nearly 800,000 tonnes produced annually and if current production and marketing trends are encouraged, commercial production for export and local consumption will be enhanced (FAO/World bank, 1999). In Nigeria, total production of pineapple in 2009 and 2010 was put at 898,376 and 1,052,000 tonnes respectively(FAO, 2010).

According to Katerina (2006), there are about 40 different varieties of pineapples. In international trade, the numerous pineapple cultivars are grouped in four main classes: ‘Smooth Cayenne’, ‘Red Spanish’, ‘Queen’, and ‘Abacaxi’, despite much variation in the types within each class. Smooth cayenne is the most important pineapple cultivar in Africa and throughout the tropics (Rice et al. 2001). The smooth cayenne or cayenne is the most popular canning variety, which is extensively cultivated in  Hawaii, Philippines, Australia, South Africa, Puerto Rico, Kenya, Mexico, Cuba and Formosa. The queen is an old cultivar and is grown mainly in Australia, India and South Africa, where it is cultivated for table and processing purpose. The flesh, although less juicy than cayenne is crispy, with a pleasant aroma. Acidity ranges between 0.6 and 0.8%.

Red Spanish is a semi-spineless cultivar grown primarily in West Africa and Germany and its fruits are intermediate in size between those of queen and smooth cayenne. It has some resistance to mealybug wilt disease (Rice et al. 2001). ‘Abacaxi’ (also called the ‘White Abacaxi of Pernambuco’, ‘Pernambuco’, ‘Eleuthera’ and ‘English’) is well known in Brazil, the Bahamas and Florida. The plant is spiny and disease-resistant. Leaves are bluish-green with red-purple tinge in the bud. The numerous suckers need thinning out. The fruit weighs 2.2 to 11 lbs (1-5 kg), is tall and straight-sided and  sunburns even when erect and it is also very fragrant. The flesh is white or very pale yellowish, of rich, sweet flavor, succulent and juicy with only a narrow vestige of a core and this is rated by many as the most delicious pineapple. It is too tender for commercial handling and the yield is low. The fruit can be harvested without a knife; breaks off easily for marketing fresh. Other varieties include kew which is the leading commercial variety in India. It is a late maturing variety, valued particularly for its canning quality and is grown in some part of Maghalaya and Kerala in India.

Jaldhup and Lakhut, are both two local types, being named after the places of their maximum production. They fall in queen group of fruits being smaller than queen. Exotic varieties include Eleukera, Ihio, f-200 grown in U.S.A., G-25, Caynee de Guinea, Bsaronne de Rakschild, Comke de Paris grown in West Africa, Gueeustand in Australia, Sarawak in Malaysia, Yupi, Randon, Paulista in Brazil. According to EADP (2000), the Red Spanish variety is popularly grown in Edo State because of its high resistance to mealybug wilt disease.

Economic Importance of Pineapple in Nigeria

 

Pineapple is used mainly as food in the form of snacks and fruit-juice, while in most parts of the world the fermented juice is used to make vinegar and alcoholic spirit. Pineapple leaves are used to make cloth and rope, while the whole plant is used as a source of energy. Pineapple is eaten as a fresh fruit throughout the tropics and subtropics (David and Adam, 1991). The outer shells and central core are used as livestock feed.

Pineapple is a favorite desert of many health conscious individuals, its health benefits ranges from protection of simple flu to fighting off free radical that causes cancer. This inexpensive food supplement is a great way to achieve a healthy body and a cleansed internal system. Pineapple fiber helps for proper digestion of the food we eat and easier elimination of body waste and provides the necessary nutrients to our body.

The crown or leaves of pineapple is used as a raw material for wallpaper and furnishing. The leaves result to a very beautiful fabric, woven from the fiber extracted from its leaves. This fabric is a favorite material in creating the elegant “Barong Tagolog” in the Philippines, the fibers of pineapple leaf can also be extracted to produce the pine textile. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, Vitamin B6, manganese and a very essential anti- oxidant vitamin C.

Pineapple bromelain is use commercially as meat tenderizing enzyme and a nutraceutical. Bromelain has shown activity with the interference of growth of malignant cells, the inhibition of platelet aggregation, fibrinolytic action, anti- inflammatory processes and skin debridement.

 

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