Mar 31

AN ASSESSMENT OF AFROCENTRIC FOREIGN POLICY IN CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN NIGERIA’S FOURTH REPUBIC

INTRODUCTION

Since independence, Nigeria has played a leading role on various issues pertaining to the African continent. As a non-aligned state, it was at the forefront of the anti-apartheid and anti-colonial struggles from the 1970s, and is generally regarded within and outside Africa, alongside Egypt and South Africa, as one of Africa’s leading states, and a global key player from Africa.

Nigeria was at the forefront of helping to transform the now-defunct Organization of African Unity (OAU) from a political liberation entity into an organization that places economic development at the centre of its mandate. Nigeria has made important contributions to relevant development strategies aimed towards improving the socio-economic conditions of the African continent.

In recent times, however, Nigeria has not pulled its weight at the continental level for various reasons, such as its inability to produce a coherent continental agenda, and its limited representation at the highest decision-making level of the AU. Perhaps, with the development of a coherent foreign policy strategy following the reappraisal of the existing overarching foreign policy strategy, Nigeria can effectively mobilize relevant resources to pursue its objectives.

One of the principles guiding the conduct of Nigeria’s foreign policy is Afrocentrism. The concept of Nigeria’s Afrocentric policy embodies two intertwined ideas. First, it is designed to advance the interest and wellbeing of African countries through different intra and extra-African diplomatic channels. Second, the reason for embracing a representative function on behalf of Africa in global forums and the enormous sacrifices undertaken in the process is to enhance Nigeria’s status as Africa’s undisputed leader. The exploits and sacrifices in the pursuit of the policy notwithstanding, Nigeria has had to endure some disappointments and inconveniences.

Mar 30

Relationship between teachers attitude and students academic achievement of senior secondary School students

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

School is a place where people learn different types of skills and abilities in order to be useful to themselves and the society in general. The school, in essence, provides total manpower to the society, and serves as a place where norms and traditions of the society are transmitted from generation to generation. The mission of the school is to produce relevant indigenous manpower for developmental activities and the bases of the need and aspirations of the society, so that the community can progress and develop especially in this age of globalisation. Besides, some of the functions the of school are that of generating and updating knowledge on contemporary issues for the purpose of unity, progress and development of human society among others Abubakar (2009).

Education on the other hand is the key to the socio economic development of any nation and social mobility of an individual while Secondary school education is the foundation of every other educational pursuit. Maduewesi (2005) in the same vein states that a sound secondary education is the pre-requisite to all other education, children need a sound secondary education because it is a gateway to whatever the individual can achieve through education. The National Policy on Education NPE (2005) describes secondary education as the key to the success or failure of the whole system. The objectives for secondary education put emphasis on a balance between physical and intellectual

development of a child. It also aimed at widening access to basic education, eliminate present inequalities in enrolment between urban and rural, ensure greater retention and ensure long-term permanent literacy for those children who had completed the system.

The achievement of the stated objectives of secondary school education, in Nigeria largely depends on many factors, among which are secondary school teacher’s attitude and experience, this is because attitude affects the success of the individual in his interpersonal relations and, as has been demonstrated by research, there is a positive correlation between favourable attitude and learning, (Saka, (2002). Therefore, becoming a successful teacher presents a great challenge today than at any previous time in history (Isyaku, (1993).

Students expect more from their school and their teachers. This shows that teachers are very important in the teaching and learning processes because they give proper and adequate training to their students to enhance production of competent individuals that will promote desired development of any nation, it should be noted that education is the instrument for social change and parameter that develop and improves the intellectual and moral abilities of the child. The importance of the teacher in education at all levels is reflected in the 2004 National Policy on Education, as it declares that “no educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers”.

Eso (1998) observed that to be an effective teacher is to possess the skills essential for enhancing classroom control and discipline. It is

the teacher’s competence, ability and resourcefulness to efficiently utilize the appropriate language, methodology and available instructional materials to bring out the best from learners in terms of academic achievement. To Abimbade, (1999) teachers are said to be effective when their teaching can lead to students’ learning. Nothing has been taught until it has been learnt and this happens when the teacher succeeds in causing a change in behaviour in the learner. It is therefore important that the teacher must see teaching as an attempt on his own part to transfer what he has learnt to his students. A growing body of research suggests that schools can make a difference and a substantial portion of that difference is attributable to teachers.

Isyaku (1993), Abimbade (1999) and Aluede (2009) stressed that for successful teaching and learning to take place, there are many factors, among which are teacher attitude and experience. As such the study is aimed at finding out the relationship between teachers attitude and students academic achievement of senior secondary Schools in sokoto south..

Statement of the

It is a known fact that education is the vehicle upon which wheel of national development revolves Fafunwa (2003). Proper education hinges on effective classroom management through the activities of teacher

.These show that for an effective teaching-learning to take place at whatever level of education, teachers are of paramount importance.

Olaofe (1997) and Maduewesi (2005) declared that teachers are very important in teaching and learning process, government and society believes that teachers play a significant role in improving the quality of

education given at all level, this is why different teacher programmes were put in place in order to improve the quality of teachers towards their teaching subject.

Teaching on the other hand is a deliberate effort by experience person to impart knowledge, information skills to less experience person through a process that is morally and pedagogically accepted, this implies that different factors need to be in place before teaching take place, among which are: mastery of the subject matter, classroom management, time management, use of proper teaching materials, teaching method etc and all these depend on the teachers attitude and teachers teaching experience.

Mar 30

Role of Woman in Classical and Modern Society A Study of Euripede’s Lysistrata

INTRODUCTION

Lysistrata, the comedy by Aristophanes, was written to be performed in the 5^th century BCE and is still one of the most significant resources we have regarding the roles and actions of women in Classical Greece. Since premiering, it has spawned many modern versions and portrayals, and is often quite well-recognized due to its controversial and hilarious content regarding sexuality and its power over the citizens of Greece during the Peloponnesian War. Because it combines both farce with truthfulness regarding the context of the work during the Classical period, Lysistrata is a valuable resource when it comes to understanding how women and their sexuality functioned in society, as well as how these functions developed throughout history. With this, the goal of this research is to examine Aristophanes’ play itself, analyze the role of women in the work, and observe how this role carries out into modern adaptations of the work.

To begin, it is important to analyze the primary sources that were used in researching Lysistrata and its history. As modern classicists, we are aware that primary sources from Classical Greece are few and far to come by in their original format – many have elements that may have been lost in translation, and some sources may have been left behind entirely. With this, the only primary source that was available in researching Lysistrata was, of course, Aristophanes’ work itself. However, the original version of the comedy was written in Ancient Greek, and thus the primary source used is one of the numerous translated editions that exist, featuring commentary and other textual notes, by Jack Johnson. Having said this, I recognized during my research that there is a definite possibility that certain elements within Aristophanes’ original work may have been lost when the play was translated to English, and thus there may be elements of his original intention that are lost to us.

Mar 30

Social Media and the Challenges of Curtailing the Spread of Fake News By Citizen Journalism in Nigeria

Abstract

The rising trend of fake news on social media in Nigeria has raised serious concern about the survival of the country’s fledgling democracy especially as the country prepares for the 2019 polls which is expected to usher in a new set of leaders. The federal government had in response to the menace which has reached an alarming proportion launched a campaign against fake news in July 2018 to raise awareness about the dangers fake news portends for the polity. While some applaud the government for the initiative, others lampoon the government for chasing shadows instead of addressing the root cause. This chapter therefore examines the issues, controversies and problems associated with the deadly scourge and proffer solutions to halt the growing menace of fake news in the country.

Chapter One/Introduction

In today’s contemporary society, social media has become a common and important factor as it touches every facet of our daily life. It has affected business; politics and the way people communicate and socialize on the web positively. The popularity of the internet has enabled individuals use social media tools to connect with each other online. Many businesses effectively use social media tools to market their products and connect with existing and potential customers (Smith, n.d.; Petersen, 2018).

Social media has gained attention as the most viable communication choice for bloggers, article writers, content creators and other users. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) describe social media as a group of internet-based application that build the ideological and technological foundation of web 2.0 and that allow creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media includes all forms of electronic communication, such as social networking sites and microblogs, through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (images, videos).

Over the years, social media has grown rapidly because it serves various social needs. It has grown because of the increasing importance of networking. Social networking sites (Facebook), microblogging services (Twitter), content sharing sites (YouTube, Flicker) have introduced the opportunity for large scale online social participation.

The positive effects notwithstanding, social media has its flipside. Its negative aspects could be seen in cyber bullying, invasion of privacy, cyber stalking, fake news, among others. Fake news is a global phenomenon (Elebeke, 2018, p. 18) that modern societies had to contend with in this digital age. Fake news means different thing to different people. To most people, fake news means fabricated new stories presented without any credible evidence and for the apparent purpose to misinform or to persuade through misinformation. Others use the term to simply describe a news story from a traditional source that contains a mistake or news that seems to contradict their own point of view. However, Rini (2017, p. 45) defines a fake news story as one that “purports to describe events in the real world, typically by mimicking the conventions of traditional media reportage, yet is known by its creators to be significantly false and is transmitted with the two goals of being re-transmitted and of deceiving at least some of its audience”

The spread of fake news could either be politically motivated or economically driven (Angus, 2018, Hunt, 2016, POLITICO, 2017). Creators of fake news post articles on their websites and share them on Facebook and other platforms to generate a lot of web traffic, which earns them money. Audience consumes fake news from a variety of sources and young and old people are susceptible (Marzilli, n.d.). But particularly susceptible are young people. Fake news comes in different forms that include distorted truth, outright lies, and exaggerated facts and so on.

There is no doubt that the advent of social media as a veritable means of information dissemination has made communication easier. It has also made the world a global village. But the obvious problems being observed on the social media platforms these days are the prevalence of fake news, distorted facts, hate speeches, blackmail and others, capable of plunging the society into undue crisis (Ezea, 2018). Some social media users have latched on the non-regulation and confidentiality of the platforms to abuse it, using it to spread fake news, hate speeches and distort facts to suit their selfish desires.

Key Terms in this Chapter

Disinformation

Is false information spread deliberately to deceive.

Menace

Is something that is likely to cause harm.

Rumour Mill

Used to refer to the process by which rumours and gossip are originated and circulated among a group of people

National Policy

A broad course of action or statements of guidance adopted by the government at the national level in pursuit of national objectives.

social networking sites

Is an online platform that allows users to create a public profile and interact with other users on the website.

Fact-Checking

It is the process of attempting to verify or disprove assertions made in speech, print media or online content.

Transparency

Is government’s obligation to share information with citizens that is needed to make informed decisions and hold officials accountable for the conduct of the people’s business.

Hoax

A hoax is a falsehood deliberately fabricated to masquerade as the truth.

Smartphone

A mobile telephone with computer features that may enable it to interact with computerized systems, send e-mails, and access the web.

Falsehood

A falsehood is a statement that distorts or suppresses the truth, in order to deceive.

Mar 29

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POLITICAL APATHY IN THE 2019 GENERAL ELECTION IN NIGERIA

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POLITICAL APATHY IN NIGERIA. A STUDY OF 2019 GENERAL ELECTION

INTRODUCTION

Political apathy is the lack of psychological involvement in public affairs, emotional detachment from civic obligations, and abstention from political activity. The takeoff point however relates to the word “apathy,” at once denoting “an individual’s impassivity or indifference and a form of collective political behavior” (Mason et al,1991). As against the dictates of political participation which brings the people to bear in the political and democratic process of a nation, political apathy shows reservation, restraint and abandonment of the system. Since participation in the political system as discussed previously, the individual has a voluntary right to participate or not to participate in the political system.

Political apathy is evidenced in mass, collective behavior but has its origin at the level of the individual psyche. It usually starts with an individual showing disappointment, distrust and faithlessness in the electoral system and encroaches like a virus to other members of the society. In the aggregate, political apathy is revealed by attitudes and an absence of expected activity. When people cease to care about political life, withdraw from obligations to civil society, and perform entirely nominal or rote acts- or none at all- in political institutions or organizations, apathy is indicated. Apathy therefore negates the true meaning of democracy which is government of the people, by the people and for the people. The emerging regime in the state of apathy cannot be considered as a true representative of the wishes of the people and it may lack the local and international backing for its successful administration. It is obvious, therefore, that as a subset of political behavior, voter apathy is multidimensional, operating as it does at the intersections of psychology, sociology, economy and geography, history and the contemporary, laws and structures, process and actors, memory, retention and perception, among others (INEC, 2011).

In describing the political apathy situation in Nigeria, AttahiruJega maintained that there exists voters’ apathy in Nigeria is no longer contentious. Voters turnout in the justconcluded general elections had provided a scientificand empirical evidence of the existence of votersapathy and disinterestedness of sections of theelectorates in elections. This ugly scenario hasimplications for popular participation and governance (Odebode, 2011).

However, several factors have been identified in literature as fueling the growing political apathy. These includes psychological involvement and collective memory of historical and contemporary events and issues, patterns of trust, feelings of efficacy, political engagement and disengagement of individual, geographic regions (Margurn 2003; Mason et al, 1991; Thomas 2004). Psychological involvement is purely and individualistic notion that describes the feeling of participation that an individual have about the political process. This is closely linked to the feeling of trust and believes in the electoral system. People will rationally stand aloof when they see the system as biased towards a particular system and more so when they see the election system as not credible. In addition, campaigns communications and the media(Panagopoulos 2009) have the probability to instigate political apathy. In the wake of hate campaign, political blackmail and libel that alienates the people from the electoral process, apathy will increase. The media from time has been a critical determinant of public opinion which may be in favor of one person or group at the expense of another. Thirdly, the role of space, distance and convenience of voting (Dyck and Gimpel 2005) can have varied impact on the electoral process which is a fundamental aspect of the democratic system. When the voting system occasion huge cost implication to the individual or the voting system is rigid, electorates will show voting apathy. To this end, governments all over the world strive to make the electoral system as simplified as possible so that voters are able to participate irrespective of their educational status, age, abilities and economic status. More so, polling station should be decentralized and brought closer to the people so that the people in the creeks and hinterland can participate in the elections.

Furthermore, Bowler and Donovan (2011) opined that the competitiveness of elections on account of extent to which elections are considered strategic and election outcomes are projected to be close influences political apathy. On the part of those contesting in election, the perception on the fairness of the entire electoral process will determine if he or she will participate in the democratic process. Other motivating factors include impact of technologies and the human, including poll worker, dimensions of elections (Hall et al, 2009), the electoral policy itself (Kaempfer and Lowenberg 1993) and the wider issues connected to economic considerations and voting (cf Koch 2007).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to:

determine the causes of political apathy as perceived by secondary school
suggest strategies for reducing political apathy

Research Questions

The following questions were raised for the study:

i) What are the causes of political apathy as perceived by secondary school teachers?
What are the role of INEC in reducing political apathy in Nigeria?

Research Hypothesis

There is no significant difference in the causes of political apathy as perceived by male and female secondary school teachers.

Mar 29

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTOMATED SOCIAL MEDIA HATE SPEECH DETECTION SYSTEM

ABSTRACT

Social Media Hate Speech has continued to grow both locally and globally due to the increase of Online Social Media web forums like Facebook, Twitter and blogging. This has been propelled even further by smartphones and mobile data penetration locally. Global and Local terrorism has posed a vital question for technologists to investigate, prosecute, predict and prevent Social Media Hate Speech.

This study provides a social media digital forensics tool through the design, development and implementation of a software application. The objective of this study is to identify and analyze the different software techniques for hate speech monitoring and provide the best suited and customized application. The study will develop an application using Linux Apache MySQL PHP and Python. The application will use Scrapy Python page ranking algorithm to perform web crawling and the data will be placed in a MySQL database for data mining.

The application used Agile Software development methodology with twenty websites being the subject of interest. The websites will be the sample size to demonstrate how the application works together with the Python libraries as the framework for web crawling. MySQL data mining, database query application models will be used in performing the search of the lexicon of keywords for hate speech, Inferences from the data mined from crawled web pages will be drawn using Microsoft Excel 2016. Excel will be used for data analysis with the data being presented in tables and figures.

AUTOMATED SOCIAL MEDIA HATE SPEECH DETECTION USING DATA MINING TECHNIQUE

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

The Internet is continually providing the medium for communication, fundraising, training, media operations and recruitment. Web forums are online Internet websites where the owners of the webpage can post stories, ideologies, blogs; which in turn undergoes discussions from the community members and participants. Web forums such as Skype, Gtalk, WhatsApp, Twitter and Facebook have become valuable arenas for social interaction, discussion and communication online on the Internet.

Internet accessibility in Kenyan has continued to penetrate and grow in numbers, with 52% of the total population of 42 Million citizens being connected. In comparison to other countries in the East Africa bloc, Kenya’s Internet usage and penetration is higher and this has mainly been facilitated by the introduction of smartphones and cheap mobile data bundles provided by Internet Service Providers and mobile networks. Currently, Kenya’s mobile tele density is placed at 77% facilitated by three mobile service providers, that is, Safaricom, Airtel and Orange (Nanfuka, 2014).

Obar (2015) defined social media as computer-mediated tools for creating, sharing and exchanging of information, photos, videos and career interests in the virtual communities and networks. Social Media services have been defined as Web 2.0 applications and web forums that emphasize on online generated content and interoperability (Darcy, 1999). This has led to web forums, blogs, wiki and media-sharing websites that grant online users the capability to communicate and respond to opinions on daily news, political debates, tribal and religion discussions.

Sutton (2009) formulates social media as diverse and developing online communication that allows the production and sharing of information (Sutton, 2009). Crisis communication, public relations, radicalization and hate speech has been acknowledged as the roles by which social media is aiding online communication. Social media forums such as Twitter have played a daily constant role in issuing daily political news, traffic updates, emergency warnings and alerts, supporting recovering efforts, situational awareness and real-time information.

Social Media, web forums and online conversations and debates have brought to the fore hate speech. The hate speech is due to the ethnic tensions which have polarized the country with each passing political season. Hate speech was in the limelight during the 2007 post-election results, as more citizens were using phone short messages to fuel, share destructive propaganda and support ethnic based violence of the different tribal communities depending on where you were aligned. ecame most apparent during the 2007 post-election period during which short message service (SMS) fueled political conflict and ethnic based violence. The number of reported causalities were not more than 1,200 and aleast 500,000 people being internally displaced. Current studies have shown the movement of hate speech from traditional person to person phone message in to social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. There was a swift change of political bickering and political tension from the physical to the digital cyber space. This was fueled much by the almost instant delivery of propaganda, agenda and tribal ethnic through social media forums such as Twitter, WhatspApp and Facebook.

The 2013 presidential debates and elections saw the maximization of social media for campaign purposes, voter communication and civic engagement. This in turn saw the resurgence of online hate speech.

Operation Linda Nchi, a codename for the joint coordinated military operation of the Kenyan and Somali armies began on 16 October 2011 (Kron, 2013) in Somalia. This is after it had been believed that Al-Shaabab militants had kidnapped several foreign aid workers and tourists visiting the country in Lamu, a coastal town. Web forums have been used by radical groups for communication, sharing of information and their ideologies to the public. Such web forums form part of the Dark Web.

The Dark Web is made up of web forums, websites, chat groups and social media platforms that are used by terrorists, hate mongers, radicals, political, ethnic and extremist groups (Chen, 2006). The war on terrorism has been both a physical, psychological and virtual battle, with extremists using web forums to spread and influence their propaganda.

Hate speech is characterized by any form of verbal or non-verbal attack targeting a specific group of people. It can be motivated by racial, ethnic, gender, religion or sexual orientation. Hate speech is usually communicated through different media such as Internet, hand-held devices, newspapers,magazines, television, radio broadcasts, verbal person-to-person.

Hate Speech is defined by the National Cohesion and Integration 2008 Act as “speech that is threatening, abusive or insulting or involves the use of threatening, abusive or insulting words” with the intention to stir up ethnic hatred or a likelihood that ethnic hatred will be stirred up. Hate Speech can be ethical or also radical when used by extremist on the basis of religion for recruiting people in terrorist acts. Hate speech is continuously evolving to the digital space and its being embodied on the social media through ethnical and radical groups and classification.

Social Media Forensics for Hate Speech Opinion Mining relates to the scientific application of cyber forensics tools to social media web forums in order to extract, identify and document hate speech.

Hate Speech on Social Media fueled the 2007 post-election violence witnessed in the country. It was one of the known contributors for ethnic strife and tension. The Law Enforcement and Communication authorities need to setup the war on the vice so as to avoid future problems. Social Media and Crime has shown a clear relationship that someone knew of the possible crime or planning of the crime. Wilson et. al (2012) argued that “Facebook and other social media platforms need to be positioned firmly within the criminologist’s gaze not only because of the wealth of data these platforms provide but also due to their significant popularity across all age groups and their influence on how people interact and communicate with one another. This is because social media is now intimately interacting with many of the issues that we as criminologists can and should be engaging with”.

The amount of big data that social media generates is immense, instant, dynamic and constantly evolving. The current law enforcement agencies and communication authorities are stretched and the need to provide an automated system is paramount.

The movement of extremist group towards the use of social media for recruiting Al-Shaabab militants is also of grave concern, as the recruiters are aware that there are no checks on the social media and cyber space. Currently, the security agencies depend on public to notify them of any hate speech comments on the Internet. The cyber hate mongers are quick enough to remove and de-register their social media accounts. Hence, the need of a solution which is more proactive and keeps a copy of the collected digital evidence.

Problem Statement

Hate Speech on social media needs to be tracked, tackled and means provided to apprehend the cyber criminals and hate speech mongers. The process of collecting and documenting online hate speech digital evidence should be optimized efficiently.

With security agencies and communication authority personnel being overstretched, with less manpower and tools, cyber expertise, the need for an automated and easier to use system for hate speech is crucial.

Using the Social Media platform, we will provide an application that will be able to mine social media opinions and easily present the results of possible hate speech crime together with the evidence and potential list of suspects. The system will invoke a web crawler that will collect all the web forum details and insert them in a database. Once the database is created, a script will be created to check the data against a list of potential keywords of hate speech. The script will search and provide the list of hate speech data together with the person of interest.

Communication authorities, security agencies and the country at large stands to benefit by placing checks on social media hate speech. The movement of hate speech mongers towards the digital cyber space needs to be addressed before it escalates further as was experienced regularly when political debates are held or government corruption cases are discussed.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the study was to design, develop and implement a software application for hate speech monitoring and reporting.

Specific Objectives

To identify and analyze techniques used in hate speech monitoring and select the best suitable technique for creating a customized hate speech
To develop an application that will combine hate speech keywords for data
To demonstrate and test the application while providing analysis on the hate speech websites being

Research Questions

The research answers the following:

How can Social Media web forums be monitored and forensic digital evidence collected?
What are the digital investigative challenges that law enforcement are facing towards evidence carving?
What are the methods used to collect the hate speech opinions and developing an algorithm?

Mar 29

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL PROPERTIES AND EQUIPMENT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

ABSTRACT

This topic is a comparative study of school properties and equipment in public and private secondary schools . 6 research questions guided the study. Related literature was reviewed under theoretical framework, conceptual framework, empirical studies and summary. Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The population of the study comprised teachers from the public secondary schools and teachers from the private secondary schools in Orlu. A 35-item structured four-point scale questionnaire titled “Comparative Assessment of Facilities Provision Questionnaire (CAFPQ)” and a check list was used for data collection. The instrument was validated by three experts, two in Educational Management and one in Test and Measurement who ascertained the validity of the instrument after corrections. The reliability of the instrument was ascertained through a pilot study which yielded a Cronbach Alpha correlation co-efficient of 0.80 which was considered high enough and reliable to use for the study. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while frequency, percentages and charts were used to test the responses from the check list. t-test was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings indicated that there is significant difference in the mean ratings in the provision of classrooms, laboratories, libraries, playgrounds electricity supply, portable water supply and staff quarters between the public and private secondary schools in the Imo state, Nigeria. This means that these facilities are more available in the public secondary schools than the private ones. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others, that the proprietors/proprietress of both public and private secondary schools should endeavour to provide adequate school facilities to meet up students’ enrolment and balance the disparity in the provision of school facilities in different type of secondary schools. Government and philanthropist organizations should assist private schools in the provision of laboratory facilities since they are very expensive for an individual school proprietor/proprietress to afford. This will help to balance the disparity in facilities provision in public and private secondary schools which affects an individual’s choice of school.

Introduction

henever the word education is mentioned in Nigeria, what readily comes to mind is its quality. Over the years, private schools have gained popularity and acceptance from Nigerians because of the failures of public schools. Private schools are seen as the better option for gaining quality education amongst many Nigerians. This has resulted to a sharp proliferation of private schools in the past one and half decade ranging from elementary to tertiary levels. For instance, private universities increased from 3 in 1999 to 68 in 2017. In Lagos State alone, about 6,083 private schools were registered in 2016.

In Nigeria, private schools are different from public schools in so many ways.

Some differences between private and public secondary school are identified and analysed below.

Class Size

Private schools have always maintained the universally recommended class size standard of teacher to pupil/student ratio of 1:25 at all levels of the educational system. When the pupils/students are few in the class the teacher can reach out to every one of them and attend to their individual learning needs. Sadly, the teacher to pupils/students ratio is hovering between 1:114 and 1:122 in public schools. With this large number, the teacher cannot be effective and will ultimately not be able to reach out to all students and meet their individual learning needs.

Strikes actions

Private schools do not belong to any labour unions and therefore, do not participate in any strike action. This has helped them to maintain their academic calendar and full coverage of their syllabus. While public schools belong to various labour unions and often participate in strike actions to press home their demands. In 2013, sixty public universities were paralysed by strikes for more than five months over demands for funding increases and better employment benefits for university staff.

Teaching Facilities

For effective teaching and learning to take place, facilities such as books, teaching aids, libraries, laboratories, etc., are very necessary. Private schools ensure that these facilities are adequately provided to facilitate and enhance teaching and learning. But these facilities are either not provided or are obsolete in most public schools.

Training

Refresher courses, workshops, seminars and training are regularly given to teachers to improve their knowledge and skills by the private school owners. While teachers in the public schools rarely get opportunities for training to improve their knowledge and skills.

Difference in School Fees

Exorbitant tuition fees and other sundry charges are peculiar with private schools. For instance, in the 2017/2018 academic session, the most expensive private primary, secondary and university are: America International School (Elementary), Lagos, USD$27,232 (N9,857,984) per annum, America International School (High School), Lagos, USD$31,228 (N11,304,536) per annum and Babcock University, Nigeria, between N620,000 and N3million depending on the programme of study.

CHAPTER TWO/LITERATURE

Public and Private Secondary Schools

Public secondary schools are those schools that are established and managed by government or are established by private individuals, communities, organizations, government parastatals but are grant-aided by government (Kapusuzoglu & Donmez, 2010). In effect, public secondary schools are those secondary schools that are managed by the government. Even if the private individual owners, the missionaries, the communities, the organizations and government parastatals have already constructed all the buildings, once payment of teacher’s salaries, employment, posting and discipline of teachers and staff generally is taken over by government, it is referred to as a public secondary school. In the words of Lee (2009), public secondary schools are those either built and directly owned by government regulations or owned through grant in aid to such secondary schools in which case government has a share in the management and administration of such schools. Lee, further states that such secondary schools were established by some voluntary agencies like missionaries, communities, private individuals, organizations like government parastatals, but are being grant-aided by government.

On the other hand, private secondary schools are those secondary schools in which government has no direct share, does not grand-aid to those secondary schools (Ikoya & Oneyase, 2008). The owners in this case can be private individuals, communities, missionaries, organizations and government parastatals.

The Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2014) considers public secondary schools as those established and owned by government, federal or state, while private

secondary school are those established or provided by voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals. FRN (2014:17) further states that government welcomes the contributions of voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals in the establishment and management of secondary schools. State governments shall prescribe conditions to be met by the communities and others wishing to establish secondary schools. It further spells out conditions under which private schools shall exist as government shall regulate the establishment of schools, supervise and inspect schools regularly and ensure that all schools follow approved curricula and conform to the National Policy on Education.

According to Adeogu (2008), public secondary schools are the type of schools that are either in partnership with government in its running or it has been taken over in certain aspects such as payment of salaries and the provision of school facilities. Adeogu, went on the say that private secondary schools are established and owned by communities, missionaries, communities or government parastatals. These secondary schools are managed by the owners without government intervention or government grant-in-aid. According to Adeogu, private secondary schools are seen as private proprietary school without government regulated administration. The private secondary school owners retain the control and management of such schools. The private secondary school owners maintain school structures and reserve the power to hire and fire their staff the provision of funds, preparation of budget, sponsorship and provision of the necessary educational facilities are purely the exclusive duty of the private owners. Relevant government authorities are to ensure compliance with the provision of the advance laws.

Provision of Classroom Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools The provision of school facilities in some public secondary schools is very impressive. The same is true of some private secondary In the public secondary school system, the twin engines of political support and economic revenue base are critical. In private secondary schools, the ability to attract endowment and other forms of financial support are just crucial too. Private secondary schools, according to Nwankwo (2014), have school facilities and amenities which surpass those found in public schools. Nwankwo elaborated that some private school owners have these secondary schools established as their business therefore, they don’t joke with the provision of the necessary facilities required by government. Labo-Popoola, Bello and Atanda (2009) posit that most private secondary schools have small sizes with smaller students population to contend with, which also requires small classroom facilities. On the other hand, a public secondary school has to admit almost any member of the community who lives within its environment. This makes them to have a large class size which requires more classroom facilities to accommodate the

students’ population.

Major and Ominabo (2013) maintain that a classroom is a room in which teaching and learning activities can take place. This is found in educational institutions of all kinds, including public and private secondary schools. Nwankwo (2014) further notes that private secondary schools have classrooms facilities such as gaslight, chalkboard, moveable walls, maps, among others. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2008) assert that because of adequate funding or large financial stand of public secondary schools, the provision of classroom facilities such as installed desk, chair, green chalk-board and even overhead projectors are more in public secondary schools than in private ones. Contrary to this, Nwankwo (2014) observed that some private

secondary schools classrooms are more equipped than those in the public secondary schools. The content of these private secondary school classrooms include flipcharts, whiteboard and interactive whiteboard where as some public secondary schools are still using the blackboard.

Mojela (2013) points out that common facilities found in private secondary school classrooms includes: televisions, maps, charts, pencils, books, monographs and among others for presenting information and images from a computer. According to Mojela, most of the listed facilities are rarely found in public secondary schools, because government takes it for granted providing all these than in the private secondary schools where the proprietors/managers go along way in making provision for all the needed classrooms facilities that will ensure effective teaching and learning. This will attract the attention of more parents in bringing their wards and children to such schools.

Adebayo (2009) aptly captures the level of decline in Nigerian education system by stating that a casual visit to any public school in Nigeria would reveal the extent to which these educational institutions have decayed. School facilities in public secondary schools are in a terrible shape; schools are littered with battered structures, worn-out equipment (where they are available at all); overcrowded classrooms, inadequate manpower in quantity and quality, instability in the academic calendar owing to strikes actions, very low teachers (staff) morale due to poor remuneration and working conditions. Similarly, Alimi, Ehinola and Alabi (2012) opine that in South-West Nigeria, public secondary schools, instructional space such as classrooms, libraries, technical workshops and laboratories are structurally defective, that is, “classrooms are not spacious enough”. The foregoing trend definitely portends grave consequences for Nigeria public secondary schools system. A situation where school

facilities are grossly inadequate would likely lead to mass failure in external examinations. The implication, for instance, is that where students lack necessary learning experiences due to inadequacy of school facilities, the achievement of pre- specific objectives of the curriculum become unattainable and leads inevitably to failure of students when they are assessed based on the objectives of the curriculum that were not achieved during teaching and learning.

Jajac, Knezic and Marovic (2009) noted that the difference in school facilities provision between the public and private secondary schools is that most facilities in public secondary schools are inadequate. The basic classrooms, teaching materials are lacking in public schools compared with private secondary school. Even the available ones seemed strangely out of place in the dilapidated surroundings.

Ogbonnaya (2012) asserts that public secondary school classrooms facilities can never be compared to those of the private secondary schools because, the owners of private secondary schools ensure more comfort for their staff and students mostly in the provision of ceiling fans, lights better installed desks/chairs and sometimes computers. According to Ogbonnaya, most public schools do not have these mentioned facilities and even those that have, they are always in bad shape or in a state of disrepair.

It is a pathetic situation in Nigeria that the situation of public secondary schools have worsened by the fact that enrolment in public secondary schools has increased without commensurate expansion or provision of adequate educational facilities in secondary schools (Asiyai, 2012). Asiyai, further states that most Nigeria public secondary schools have been in existence for a relatively long period with the same limited classrooms, open spaces, libraries, laboratories and so on. Such

secondary schools have witnessed little or no renovation over time, while virtually nothing is done to expand the size of facilities in such schools.

Provision of Laboratory Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

Laboratory has been conceptualized as a room or a building specially built for teaching by demonstration of theoretical phenomenon into practical terms. Cynthia and Megan (2008) opines that “seeing is believing” as the effect of using laboratories in teaching and learning of science and other science related disciplines as students tend to understand and recall what they see than what they hear or were told. Laboratory is essential to the teaching of sciences and the success of any science course is dependent on the laboratory provision made for it. Affirming this, Vandiver (2011) also observes that, there is a general consensus among science educators that the laboratory occupies a central position in science instruction. It could be described as a place where theoretical work is practicalized whereas practicals in any learning experience involves students in activities such as observing, counting, measuring, experimenting, recording, observations and carrying out field work. These activities are different from the theoretical work which involves listening to talks and taking down notes from such talks.

Yadar (2007) opines that no course in sciences and mathematics in secondary schools can be considered as complete without including some practical works. The practical work ought to be carried out by individuals either in science laboratories or in classes. At secondary school level, practical work is even more important because of the fact that we learn by doing. Scientific practices and applications are thus rendered more meaningful. It is an established truth that an object handled impresses itself more firmly on the mind than the object merely seen from a distance or in an illustration. Thus practical work forms an important feature in any science. Owoeye and Yara (2011), assert that laboratory is very important in all the secondary schools for the students to learn better particularly in science subjects, irrespective of their locations and ownership. Owoeye and Yara are of opinion that where the specimens used in the laboratories are not commonly available like in the rural areas, the science students hardly perform in such places. Yara and Otieno (2010) also found that classroom/laboratories and textbooks/students-ratio could be used to predict academic performance in science and mathematics in secondary schools in Bondo district of Kenya.

Owoeye and Yara (2011) concluded in their study that school facilities were the most potent determinant of academic achievement. Facilities in terms of qualifications of personnel, who are directly involved in the pedagogy; laboratory, library, classroom chairs/tables, administrative blocks, chalk-board, school maps and the likes are very crucial to high academic attainment. Owoeye and Yara, further state that academic performance in secondary schools generally is a function of availability of facilities to students in public schools compare to private secondary schools. They however, state that experience on the part of the school personnel cannot be ruled out but facilities availability is important to high academic achievement of students.

Yadar (2007) opines that no course in sciences can be considered as complete without including some practical work. The practical work ought to be carried out by individuals either in science laboratories or in classes. At school level, practical work is even more important because of the fact that we learn by doing. Scientific practices and applications are thus rendered more meaningful. It is an established fact that an object handled impresses itself more firmly on the mind than the illustration. Thus practical work forms an important feature in any science and mathematical courses (UNESCO, 2008).

Laboratory accordingly provides a forum wherein the learner is given the exercise to subject his beliefs, ideas, statement, theoretical propositions and so on. To some forms of experimental task. Owoeye and Yara (2011) maintained that, in order to maintain and arouse the interest of students in subjects involving laboratory work, the teacher should be effectively involved in order to transform knowledge and facts to learners for a good performance in any examination. Adeiza (2011) postulates that laboratory as a school facility is grossly inadequate in some public secondary schools in Lagos state Nigeria and some of the public secondary schools in the south-west Nigeria have merely a room designated as laboratory without equipment for teachers and students to undertake experiments.

Laboratory is a designated room where equipment to carry out scientific experiment are installed. Some of the laboratory equipment include amongst others; fume, cardboards, rotary evaporators and infrared Spectro meters. Bello, Theordora and Olufunkein (2012), emphasized the importance of science laboratory positing that science had been of a great importance internationally for sustainable and socio- economic development as well as for technological advancement of nations. Knowledge of science and technology is therefore a requirement in all countries and needed by all people globally due to the number of challenges that are facing them. These challenges include emergencies of new drug resistant diseases, effects of genetic experimentation and engineering. Olufunkein added that public secondary schools have less laboratories, even where they have, the laboratories are not equipped with reagents.

Okpala (2010) posits that many private secondary schools do not have adequate facilities that can enhance teaching and learning in the schools. Such facilities include: standard library, standard laboratory and so on. Okpala further opines that most of the private secondary schools do not have enough money to provide all necessary things for their schools. School laboratory is one of the necessary facilities, Abdulkarim, Lodhi and Usman (2011) opine that in public secondary schools, laboratories are not provided for teachers and students. Laboratories are essential at secondary school levels, especially for science students. Abdulkarim, Lodhi and Usman, further state that in public schools, facilities and equipment related to experiment do not exist. They have to teach students with limited and improper damaged instruments.

Kings (2011) holds that, in most private secondary schools, some laboratory facilities/equipment are non-existent. They are without reagents. To Kings, those instances where the facilities are available they are inadequate. Many of them are sub- standard and obsolete. This may be one of the reasons why it is common to see science teachers running all over the places sometimes even to private schools to collect specimens and other materials that schools are expected to use during class demonstrations and experiments. Ochai (2012) postulates that in spite of all the efforts made by the Christian missions representing the private sector participation in the provision of education and the former regional government, the various states and federal government of Nigeria, the shortage of educational facilities such as school buildings, libraries, laboratories and recreational facilities, ICT continued to be a major problem confronting secondary schools – public and private. Ochai further lamented that, one of the major problems leading to shortage of school facilities is the dwindling financial allocation to public secondary schools. According to Ochia, the amount of money specifically voted for capital project in education by government is not enough to meet the demand for school facilities and the expansion of the existing ones.

Torley (2009) maintains that laboratory equipment, such as fume cardboards, rotary evaporators and infra-red spectrometers are hardly found in public secondary schools but can be found in private secondary schools. Similarly, Aldermna, Orazem and Paferno (2010) observe that availability of adequate science materials and equipment in public secondary schools is more as compared to private secondary schools. Aldermna, Orazem and Paferno, listed, common among the equipment to include work benches, countertops, cabinets for storage of laboratory equipment and books. Aldermna, Orazem and Paferno, further note that in private secondary schools the owners try as much as possible to make provision of all the needed laboratory facilities so as to win the minds of parents who intend to enroll their children in better science schools where they can learn better. But in public schools, government do not care if those facilities are available or not since the aim is not to make profit but to provide services to the members of the public at affordable cost.

Ikoya and Onoyase (2008) asserted that in most private secondary schools, there are no laboratories even; the ones with laboratories cannot get the best for the students, because of the emptiness of the laboratories. Ayogu (2008) asserts that because of the financial position of public secondary schools laboratory equipments such as incubators, microscopes, laminar flow/biohazard and bio-softly hoods are possibly found in public secondary schools than in private secondary schools whereby the proprietor/proprietress might have low financial status that cannot purchase some of the listed expensive laboratory facilities. Igwe (2008) notes that laboratory facilities such as fluorescent, optics and camera, bench, dissectory microscopes, cell and brain staining apparatus and chemicals, are hardly found in some public secondary schools but many are found in private secondary schools, that are more concerned about giving the best quality of education to students so as to win the interest of more parents to send their children to such private schools. Similarly, Handallah, Ozovehe and Olanrewaju (2013) note that a casual visit to most of the public science secondary schools today would reveal the extent to which government has abandoned those schools. The availability of laboratory facilities seems to be inadequate or having decayed specimens and other important facilities/equipment. This makes concerned parents wishing to give their wards the best education to start looking for an alternative which is the private schools where provision and maintenance of school facilities is better.

Provision of Library Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

Library is an accommodation where books of various grade levels are stored on shelves for students and even teachers to read (Obomanu & Akporehwe, 2011). Library facilities are very important in well-organized secondary schools and indeed every educational institution. Without library facility in secondary schools both students and teachers will have some difficulties in gaining knowledge. Teachers make researches to broaden their knowledge in specific areas through reading books from the libraries. Edem (2011) maintain that many public secondary schools are without a sizeable collection of books, while some have only scanty and poorly maintained ones. The contribution of school library to effective teaching and learning is obvious. It is an inseparable part of instruction, serving as a reading centre as well as repository of information for both the teacher and the students. Nwankwo (2014) observes that the content of a library must reflect the objectives of the school, the

nature of the school programmes and the level or classes and subject areas of the students and staff.

Ige (2011) observes in Niger State that many public secondary schools lack standard libraries with adequate learning facilities as compared to private secondary schools. Similarly, Yusuf (2009) maintains that a standard library for effective teaching and learning should contain shelves, chairs tables, plenty of books cutting across all disciplines, a computer, maps atlas, encyclopedia, magazines, florescent light and fans with well-ventilated windows.

Ekere (2008) in Imo State lists non books media in public secondary schools to include audio player/cassettes, video cassettes/player, film projectors, slides, overhead projectors, computers, transparencies, disk, ink and video compact disk player. Ekere, concludes in his view that public secondary schools are better off in terms of providing those facilities in the secondary school libraries. However, Ekere laments the inadequacy of library facilities in public secondary schools and sometimes which are so outdated. Chinelo (2011) points out that the expansion in students’ enrolment in schools as a result of the introduction of Universal Basic Education programme at different times in Nigeria has made it difficult to commensurate increase in the provision of adequate instructional materials in our school library. Under this situation facilities previously used by few students are now used by hundreds of learners. It is not the same case with private secondary schools. According to Obe (2009), most private secondary schools in Nigeria have developed secondary school library websites, which keep students informed about various activities and programs of the schools through these websites whereas, most public secondary schools libraries look uninteresting to even student to even enter into. On the other hand, Ukpai and Okoro (2011) state that public secondary schools have huge

resources at their disposal than the private schools and can play an important role in improving the situation in secondary school libraries by delivering the information, literacy skill relating to use of e-resources particularly to secondary schools. Mardes (2009) asserts that teachers have very specific information needs relating to mastering the curriculum content and the behavioural structure of their classroom for a diverse range of learners. However, research by Gakure, Mukuria and Kithae (2013) in Kenya, has shown that teachers mostly in some private secondary schools do not use their school libraries and various information resources effectively, mainly due to the inadequacy of their school facilities in terms of educational materials and other facilities. Similarly Abdulkarim, Lodhi and Usman (2011) aver in Pakistan that, government sector libraries are not available for teachers and students. Abdulkarim, Lodhi and Usman, further stated that, the Pakistanian education policy of 1992-2010 recommended that schools should be facilitated with libraries and laboratories so that teachers can get benefit of it.

Okorodudu (2011) corroborating these views, maintains that high level of students’ academic performance may not be guaranteed where instructional facilities such as; libraries, laboratories and classrooms are structurally defective. Okorodudu further emphasized that structural effectiveness, proper and well equipped library leads to successful teaching and learning process in Nigeria secondary schools. Edem (2011) observes that most public secondary schools claim to have library support and facilities, be it a shabby room having a small collection of books, dumped in a room with keys in charge of a teacher or a clerk. This means that the library is not organized and lacks basic library items. The services are just bad with conditions that discourage pupils to gain admission into the private secondary schools.

There is no doubt that library occupies a very prominent place in every educational set-up at present. The changing pattern in education demands that learning must be accelerated and broadened by the use of many and varied devices and materials. In a dynamic approach to teaching, library is an essential part of the school. It does not only supply more information, it supplies materials in all fields of study “all good methods of education postulate the existence of a well-stocked efficiently organized library” the teaching in the new set-up cannot be classroom centered but has to be student centered and library-centered. The students learning has to be self-directed and he has to acquire reading skills and do reading activities through the agency of the school library. This is irrespective of public or private secondary schools. Whereas, a curriculum and text-books aim at providing the least common multiple of all students in a class, the library aims at not only bringing out the individuals difference but also developing special interest and aptitudes of their best advantage.

Civilization has progressed by virtue of specialization and specialization is fed by out of the route studies. Library habit creates specialists. Students need an environment of attractive books from the beginning and it is one of the duties of the school proprietor/proprietress to provide this environment. Hence the school library can play an important role in all aspects of education. As all education does not take place at home, or school, it service makes a substantial contribution to students’ education during school life and also helps in their future search for knowledge. No wonder, therefore Kochhar, (2007) remarks that a school without an easily accessible library of at least thousand volumes is really scarcely a school at all, it is a dispensary without bottles, a kitchen without a pantry.

According to Keith (2008) public secondary schools in Nigeria lack adequate library facilities. She maintains that most of the public secondary schools have the library buildings but at most what is contained therein is just a handful of obsolete textbooks. Many libraries for the public schools do not have library resources like, units booklets, library materials, reference materials, newspapers, pamphlets, periodicals, audio-visual or non-reading materials and so on.

Provision of Sporting Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

Sporting facilities are useful for the exercise of the body. Education at the secondary school levels and even beyond requires the exercise of the body of the students. It is good for the health of the human body. Generally speaking, every educational institution is supposed to have playgrounds or sporting facilities. Ediho (2009) asserts that playgrounds or supporting facilities is a place with a specific design for children to be able to play there; it may either be indoors or outdoors. School playground facilities include all recreational equipment such as seesaw, merry-go-round, swinging sets, slide, jungle gym, chin-up bars, sandbox, spring riders, monkey bars, overhead ledders, trapeze rings, play houses, play fields and mazes. Many of these help students to develop physical co-ordination, strength and flexibility as well as providing recreation and enjoyment. He also states that playgrounds often have facilities for playing informal games of adult sports, such as baseball diamond, a basketball court or a tether ball. Obe (2009) observes that private secondary schools playgrounds facilities such as swings, climbing arenas, large sand areas, professional style baseball field, track and soccer field, modern gymnasium are considered better that that of the public secondary schools.

Similarly, Akpan (2008) maintains that the playground facilities of the public secondary schools lag behind that of the private schools. However, since there are more positive and very innovative teachers in the public schools, resourcefulness and creativity makes both ends meet in terms of using present resources and their indigenes compensate for what is lacking. Adeyemi (2012) observes that standard sport facilities and equipment in any school should be pre-requisites for getting approval for establishing. Different types of activities require different facilities and equipment. Consequently, any limitation of these facilities and equipment create difficulties in presenting the desired variety of sports activities. Thus, according to Adeyemi, most private secondary schools do not have sport facilities for soccer, handball, basketball and volleyball.

Ige (2011) lists some common playground facilities found in most private schools to include, seesaw, jangle gym, overhead ladder, slide, swing set, table tennis, snooker board, monkey bars, spring rider and sand box. Ige further states that availability of playground facility in private secondary schools outweigh that of the public secondary schools. This situation according to Ige, is because, government as the owner of public secondary schools do not sometimes care about adequate provision of facilities most especially for sports. Sometimes the government is not fair to school managers in terms of urgent replacement of sporting facilities in schools. Since the owners are closer to the schools, they therefore, give better and faster attention to the provision and maintenance of sport facilities.

Playground/sporting facilities is very crucial to students in secondary schools. Ugwuoke (2011) avers that whatever special organizations, agencies and offices that have been created for sports development purposes and to make available sports services, it is mandatory that secondary schools and tertiary institutions should be called upon to play significant and quite frequently, the major role in Nigeria’s quest to attain national and international standards and honoured in sports. But according to

Jeroh (2007), the use of mercenaries in secondary school sports has readily led to the decline in sports development. Genuine students who needed to be encouraged are disillusioned because the schools do not give them the opportunity to showcase their talents. Agwubike (2007) observes that in most public and private secondary schools, there is death of physical education specialization even those that specialize in physical education prefer to handle other subjects leaving out, physical education to suffer. In such a situation, there is ineffective and inefficient implementation of strategies for achieving policy aspirations and objectives. Anike and Tari (2011) notes that the stimulating school environment for sports development in Nigeria would remain low and inconsistent until objectives, policies and procedures are in harmony with the school curriculum.

Okwori, Uever, Ada and Tor-Ayiin (2011) observe that in most of the privately owned secondary schools, there is lack of playground and the availability of sporting activities. Oluremi and Oyewale (2013) notice that sports facilities are lacking in most of the public and private secondary schools in Delta state Nigeria. Orunaboka and Nwachukwu further state that some of the public and private secondary schools do not have the playground not to talk of the sporting facilities. Nwizu (2011) in comparison of availability of sporting activities in public and private secondary schools noticed that most of the public secondary schools have playground but do not have sporting activities. Nzewi (2010) notices that private school in the South-West geopolitical zone lacked some of these sporting activities. Those activities include gymnastics, javelin, volleyball, basketball, football and many other games. Fagbulu (2013) opines that private secondary schools in Nigeria mostly do not have enough space to established reasonably sporting activities for the students.

Ogundele (2012) observes that students learn best when they can actively explore an environment that is rich in materials. In the secondary school environment, the available education facilities include school plants which comprise semi-structures and structures that are put in place towards enhancing effective learning process. School facilities are recreational facilities like indoor, outdoor games, simulation games, tourism. Ezeanichinedu (2009) posits that many private secondary schools in the eastern state in Nigeria operate without adequate playground for sporting activities to take place in the schools. Dantani (2007) opines that there are a number of students that their football talent will be discovered and develop in the secondary school. Such a student will not see any good thing in a school that does not have playground/sporting facilities.

Okwori, Uever, Ada and Tor-Ayiin (2011) are also of the opinion that secondary schools whether public or private need playground because most students have interest in the interschool competition. That is one of the things that awaken their interest in education. It is not just for the book learning alone.

Similarly, Balogun (2009) asserts that public secondary schools have adequate space and large fields for sports, and other physical activities but no adequate facilities whereas private schools have small space for facilities. Balogun further states that private schools have more playground facilities than the public secondary schools, because they are profit making organizations and would want to attract the attention of parents for more patronage and partly for financial gains. Therefore, they have to provide the best needed all round learning facilities for effective teaching and learning of the students.

Mar 26

HOW TO ORGANIZE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN CHAPTER THREE OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

HOW TO WRITE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN CHAPTER THREE OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents research methodology and design. The research methodology helps in giving explanation on how research study has been done and how the research problem has been defined. Not only that but also it helps in explaining what data have been collected and which methods have been used and why the technique of analyzing the data has been selected. Kothari (2004) suggested the contents of research methodology to contain: the research design, area of study (coverage), sample and sampling techniques, methods for data collection and techniques for data analysis. In view of this, this study adopted the above outline as a framework for the presentation of this chapter.

Writing a good and acceptable methodological details in chapter three of a research project requires more technicality and carefulness.

Template of chapter three (research methodology) of a research project

Research Design.

This case study employs both qualitative and quantitative forms with 73 respondents. The choice of the two-research design is based on the fact that these two approaches vary in strength and weakness. Therefore, the study uses both of them for complementary purposes. The explanatory research design, for instance uses open ended and probing questions which gives participants the opportunity to respond in their own words rather than forcing them to choose from fixed responses. Creswell (2009) defines, mixed method research as “an approach to inquiry that combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative forms”. This study adopts qualitative design to a large extent and quantitative design to a lesser extent. This is especially because the study is exploratory by nature. This method is used to capture frequencies of respondents and the average level of responses.

Study Area

The study was conducted at the Opportunity Microfinance L.t.d. in Mbagala, Chanika, Manzese and Kiluvya. The rationale for selecting these areas is due to the availability of collecting the required data that allow intensive observation, easy to access information and to minimize cost. In addition to that, based on the 2012 Nigeria Population and Housing Census shows that three areas (Mbagala, Chanika, and Manzese) had a total population of 167,001 whereby Manzese ward had the highest population with 70,507 followed by Mbaga Ward with 52, 582 and finally Chanika Ward with 43,912 inhabitants (Nigeria census, 2012)

Study Population.

Population refers to all members, groups, or elements that the researcher wants to gain information from, represent and draw conclusion for the study (Vans 1990). Due to the nature of this study, the study population includes IT officers, Head of Department, client and teller in the financial institutions because they are the key informants.

Study Sample.

According to Webster (1985), a sample is defined as a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied for the purpose of gaining information about the whole. It can also be defined as a set of respondents or people selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey. When it is possible, the researcher would prefer to study the whole population in which he/she is interested. However, it is difficult to do so in this study because the population of interest is large, diverse, and scattered over a large geographic area as well as time consuming and expensive. A sample size is the unit of inquiry selected from the target population. The researcher used the proportionate stratification approach in which the sample size of stratum is proportionate to the population size of the stratum.

Sampling Procedure

The researcher used purposive sampling to select 73 respondents who were obtained from the studied the Opportunity Microfinance Nigeria Ltd in Mbagala, Chanika, Manzese and Kiluvya. Purposive sampling technique is selected due to the fact that it is less expensive and quick for selecting a sample. Through this sampling technique, the researcher got the respondents who were able to deliver the required data. However, the major weakness of this method is bias, because the researcher selected only the sample, he believed enriched with the needed information.

Methods and Procedures in Data Collection

This study involved the collection of both primary and secondary data. Primary data collection methods included the use of structured questionnaire, in-depth interviews and observation. Collection of qualitative data (in-depth interview) was guided by a pre-defined set of steps and instruments of defining events and observation, for instance, check-lists for key questions and observations to be recorded. The qualitative data collection aimed at complementing and validating the data collected using questionnaire survey.
Collections of primary data were complemented by collecting secondary data from various sources such as reports as well as papers published in peer referred journals. Important data to be collected in this category was the ICT utilization on microfinance institutions performance.

Primary Data

Kothari (2004) defined primary data as those collected afresh and for the first time and therefore happen to be original in character. A research can be conducted without secondary data; however a research based on only secondary data is not much reliable and may have biases because it has already been manipulated by human beings. In this proposed study the primary data was expected to be derived from the answers of respondents given in in-depth interview and researcher’s administered questionnaires.

In-Depth Interview

In-depth interview is a qualitative research method which involves conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of informants to explore their perspectives on a particular idea, program, or situation (Boyce and Neale, 2006). The main reason for the researcher to adopt an in-depth interview method is that it provides a much more detailed information than other data collection methods, such as surveys. Also, the choice of interview method in this study is based on its usefulness for getting the story behind informant’s experiences, its relevance to illiterate informants and the loophole for the researcher to probe deeper into the given situation.In addition to that, in-depth interview provides more comfortable atmosphere for collecting information because people may feel more relaxed having a conversation with the researcher about the program as opposed to filling out a survey. The purpose of utilizing interviews as data collection instrument is basically because of its naturalness, spontaneity, flexibility and the control over the environment. This method will be employed in order to allow informants to freely express themselves and able explore in detail the topic under investigation.

Researcher-administered Questionnaire.

There are different types of questionnaires in research but under this study the researcher-administered questionnaire was adopted. All questions were closed ended and were administered by the researcher. Researcher-administered questionnaire was used because of its advantages, as it is covers large number of respondents in a short time, ensures the completion of questionnaires and is simple to analyze as compared with qualitative methods like in-depth interview. This argument concurs with Kothari (2008) who states that “structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyze”. Under this study the original questionnaire was designed in English and administered in Kiswahili before the answers being translated back to English for recording.

Review of Secondary Data

According to Kothari (2008), secondary data means data which is already available. It involves data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else. The reason for using secondary data in this study are that they are cost-effective way of acquiring a broad understanding of research questions and useful in designing primary research as well as in providing a baseline with which to compare primary data results. Additionally, the reviewing of secondary data helps to set the background of the problem, formulation of problem statement, research questions and gap of knowledge. In this study secondary data was derived from the findings in published documents and literatures related to the research problem with ICT.
Furthermore, in this proposed study, review of secondary data was applied as a supplementary data collection method and it includes previous researches related to the study topic. Therefore, these documents are intended to supplement the information obtained from the primary sources. Neuman, (2000) and Mouton (2001) noted that the importance of undertaking desk review in any research study is that it is based on the assumption that researchers learn from existing knowledge and build on what other researchers have already done on a similar or related problem.

Data Analysis

Statistics package for social science (SPSS) computer program was used to analyze data that collected through questionnaires preliminary analysis of information was soughed through in-depth interviews that were done during the fieldwork. Such preliminary analysis has been suggested to be useful for improving questions during the fieldwork (Gibbs, 2002). However, the large part, of analysis was done after the field work. Interpretation of qualitative data involved organizing information into units, synthesizing, and searched for meaningful patterns and finally gained an understanding. Frequencies and percentages were used to summarize the collected data. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses is to be subjected to the statistical tests of significance to determine validity that data can be said to indicate in any conclusion (Kothari, 2004). Summary statistics including tables was used to present findings.

Method of Data Analysis

The model for data analysis is helping to acquire knowledge from the collected data. The Model makes it possible to identify relationships between variables and understands how variables, working on their own and influences an overall system and examine each component of data provided.frequencies

Mar 26

IMPACT OF CELEBRITIES’ DRESSING PATTERN IN SOCIAL MEDIA AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT’S CHOICE OF CLOTHING

Introduction

Historically, fashion plays a significant role and has greatly influenced the “fabrics” of societies all over the world. What people wear often depicts the social life of the people across the world (Anyakoha, Eluwa, 2008). The quest to cover the nakedness of mankind plays a significant role in defining the original purpose and intent of dressing. Thus, dressing is not just for clothing purposes but for adornments (Schall & Appiah., 2016). Clothing can be described as something worn on the body and this includes materials such as garments, shoes, jewellery, cosmetics, and others. It is also a form of cultural expression that depicts every aspect of human life (Kiran, Malik, Riaz, 2010). The human dress is a kind of “symbolic” way of communication and is usually the basis on which immediate impressions are formed (Uwakwe, 2010). The style of clothing that people wear, the fabrics, designs and colours can speak largely, the way an individual thinks and lives (Uwakwe, 2010). Ibrahim (2013) opined that the display of fashion

designer’s products via social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp etc. often inspire and influence changes in the clothing of the people.

Similarly, clothing choice and practices are an important human activity that constitutes the selection, acquisition and utilization of clothes. These activities are affected by social reasons, values, goals and self-concept (Wole, Ibrahim, Shehu, John, et al, 2001). The way we dress is a significant way of revealing our culture and its differences in other societies. Unfortunately, the value of dressing and its purposes have been defeated by the current generation of youths in Nigeria (Omede, 2011). Over the years, there have been trends at which fashion and dressing have changed and evolved so to say. There is a new trend in dressing among young ladies which is in vogue at the moment, especially among students of the tertiary institution. This involves dressing in provocative or see-through outfits that expose the inner parts of the female body such as bare breast, tummy or the waistline among others (Azu, 2005). Currently, dressing to expose the sacred part of the body has become a modern dressing style (Mohammed, 2015). Culture, foreign influence, institutions, peer pressure and the media are the major factors, which influence the recent trend of dressing (Mohammed, et al., 2015).

In Nigeria, for example, young girls, particularly students of tertiary institutions wish to be classy. Thus, they purchase any dress that is in vogue, these they get through social media and the social personalities they choose as role models, (Chukwudi & Gbakorun, 2011). On social media, celebrities are well-known personalities who are famous because of their achievements. According to Schlecht (2003), Celebrities are individuals who are recognized publicly by a great number of people. This recognition and achievements are usually known both locally and internationally. These celebrities and their display of fashion statements influence the dress culture of youth and the fashion industry, which is evident in specific fashion replications (La Ferla, 2009). Local and international celebrities, with a mode of dressing, which is usually that of Western wears often take pictures, record videos and published them on social media. The youth observe the celebrities closely and imitate every aspect of their social life, particularly dressing style. The youth pay attention to their advice even more than their parents, teachers and well- wishers (Norton, 2006).

Celebrities seen on television and other relevant social media platforms such as Instagram, Twitter, Facebook are all powerful tools for communicating dressing and clothing styles to students (Kiran, Malik, Riaz, 2010). The act of copying celebrity’s dressing style evolving among students often leads to over-exposure of the inner body and this has implications such as rape, sexual harassment, being tagged as prostitutes, molestation and poor academic performance and other vices (Folagbade, 2009). The causes of indecent dressing among female students can be traced to several forces such as fashion, value system, civilization and infiltration of Western dresses, the effect of the media, peer pressure, family orientation and poor parentage (Omede & Odiba, 2000).

Dress to kill has become a common phenomenon in the school of higher learning as students strive to look sexy or classy, forgetting that they ought to look responsible (Antonia and Bridget, 2015). Most Nigerian girls have dropped their traditional dressing styles for foreign styles as their dress patterns are most times against African culture (Omede, 2010). This form of dressing is provocative, according to Olori, (2003). Improper and unacceptable dress patterns are morally offensive and reveal the high rate of moral decadence in the society. Oji (2007) noted that the use of internet unscrupulously for anti-social activities other than academic activities has become a growing concern in Nigerian institutions. Universities in Nigeria are seriously struggling with incessant indecent dressing particularly among female students (Obilo and Okugo 2013). Many parents and institutions are worried about the students’ habits on Facebook and other social media sites because they believe that the students now hardly have time for their studies and other responsibilities.

It is on this premise that this research intends to examine the influence of social media on dressing patterns among female undergraduate students at the University of Ilorin. Studies have been conducted on related issues; nonetheless, not much empirical work has yet addressed the issue thoroughly.

Mar 26

INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE ON FASHION TRENDS AMONG STUDENTS

INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE ON FASHION TRENDS AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

The usage of social media technology by luxury brands surged in 2009. Technology encourages customers to interact with brands. These customer interactions build the brand by increasing awareness, involvement, and engagement; thus, adding to brand recall and stimulating purchases. Tweets, blogs, and social networks like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, and Pinterest offer fashion brands ways to connect with audiences. Though many fashion brands initially believed social networking would weaken the relationship with consumers, social media is now viewed as an opportunity to improve customer relationships and to ultimately capture a larger audience. For example, the timing was right for Gucci’s multicultural social network site, “Guccieyeweb.com” for the launch of a new sunglasses collection targeting digital generation customers. Gucci updates its Facebook site several times a day and sends Twitter tweets (Kim and Ko, 2012)

The emergence of social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) has boosted interest in word of mouth and viral marketing among luxury brands. Word of mouth (WOM) – interpersonal communication about products and services between consumers – is one of the most influential sources of marketplace information for consumers (Arndt, 1967; Alreck & Settle, 1995). When WOM travels on the Internet, it can be viral and most powerful, regardless of whether the information is good or bad. For followers, it is becoming increasingly challenging to sort out the facts, since the immediacy of information is extreme with no standard to determine the truth. The spread of information brings people to a common sphere to exchange views. Los Angeles day-to-day celebrity wear, for example, has become a worldwide phenomenon, partly due to social media legitimizing the casual look. Vintage stores, showcasing T shirts and jeans, permeating the Los Angeles casual style, are the retail niche of consumers found now throughout the world.

Fashion is everywhere, mostly due to the internet. “Blogs” offer consumers an almost unlimited space for self-expression on the Internet (Kozinets, 2006). Blogs are defined as personal websites, “usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video, where entries are commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order” (Wikipedia, 2009). Unlike fashion-focused magazines and television shows, there are millions of fashion blogs worldwide that are updated regularly with new fashion trends. The blog’s effectiveness is due to its strong individual, personal, popular, and elitist point of view. Its engaging experience offers readers the opportunity to voice opinions and challenge fashion critics.

Brands view popular bloggers as the new journalists and influencers. The advent of agencies representing bloggers points to the evolving influence of fashion blogs. Once considered fashion-obsessed amateurs, style bloggers have matured into fashion trendsetters and the savvy marketers command fourand five-figure fees from brands. New agencies like Digital Brand Architects in New York represent fashion and lifestyle bloggers, brokering endorsement deals with fashion labels, signing up advertisers and, in some cases, booking lucrative television commercials. Nowadays even mainstream agencies like Creative Artists Agency represent powerful bloggers (Kurutz, 2011).

In the past two years, there is a growth in fashion apps for the iPhone, iPad, and iPod. These apps offer customers up-to-the-minute deals, information on the latest fashion trends, the convenience of shopping directly from an iPhone, iPad or iPod, and ease of social sharing. Pose, for example, is a fashion app full of blogger images and ideas. Users can score the latest looks from fashionistas and trendsetters as well as share favorite fashion finds and outfits. Even more, like Facebook, users interact with styles, and share Twitter Pose tweets.

Social media is the interaction among people in which they create, share or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks, Go, vender, et al (2013). Social media depends on mobile and web- based technologies to create highly interactive platforms through which individuals and communities share, co- create, discuss, and modify user-generated content. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to

communication between organizations, communities, and individuals, Megan A. Pumper et al (2011). The increased use of the Internet as a new tool in communication has changed the way people interact. Recently, a new means of online communication has emerged with its own set of idiosyncrasies. This new communication style occurs through the use of social networking sites.

Over the last decade, Social media has become an effective marketing tool; it has not only created a new dimension of marketing, but has also provided many opportunities to the marketers to create brand awareness among consumers. It is now considered as the most transparent, engaging and interactive form of public relations.

Social media is a compilation of online platforms and communication channels that are used by people to share information, profiles, assumptions, observations, apprehension, and media itself; it facilitates communication and interactions between different groups of people from all across the world. (Moran, 2012).

The world has become a Global Village & with the advent of information technology, the ways of communication and work have been revolutionized completely. The emergence of social media has transformed the world and its entire way of functioning, bringing the world and its people closer. Social media refers to activities, practices, and behaviors among groups of people who gather online to share information, experiences, and perspectives using colloquial media. Colloquial or conversational media are basically online based applications that have enabled to create and transmit content in the form of words, pictures, videos, and audios. (Brake, 2009).

One industry which is considered to be perfectly suited and naturally fit for social media is Fashion. When we talk about social media for the fashion industry, it refers to the social networking websites and other online platforms that enable the fashion industry to connect with their customers using the latest social networking technology. The fashion Industry is using social media to study trends and anticipate fashion behaviors. It is embracing social media, which has enabled it to emerge in the forefront as a phenomenon.

AN ASSESSMENT OF AFROCENTRIC FOREIGN POLICY IN CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN NIGERIA’S FOURTH REPUBIC

INTRODUCTION

Relationship between teachers attitude and students academic achievement of senior secondary School students

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

Role of Woman in Classical and Modern Society A Study of Euripede’s Lysistrata

INTRODUCTION

Social Media and the Challenges of Curtailing the Spread of Fake News By Citizen Journalism in Nigeria

Abstract

Chapter One/Introduction

Key Terms in this Chapter

Disinformation

Menace

Rumour Mill

National Policy

social networking sites

Fact-Checking

Transparency

Hoax

Smartphone

Falsehood

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POLITICAL APATHY IN NIGERIA. A STUDY OF 2019 GENERAL ELECTION

INTRODUCTION

Purpose of the Study

Research Questions

Research Hypothesis

ABSTRACT

AUTOMATED SOCIAL MEDIA HATE SPEECH DETECTION USING DATA MINING TECHNIQUE

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

Problem Statement

Objectives of the Study

Specific Objectives

Research Questions

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCHOOL PROPERTIES AND EQUIPMENT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

ABSTRACT

Introduction

Some differences between private and public secondary school are identified and analysed below.

Class Size

Strikes actions

Teaching Facilities

Training

Difference in School Fees

CHAPTER TWO/LITERATURE

Public and Private Secondary Schools

Provision of Laboratory Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

Provision of Library Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

Provision of Sporting Facilities in Public and Private Secondary Schools

HOW TO WRITE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN CHAPTER THREE OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

Template of chapter three (research methodology) of a research project

Research Design.

Study Area

Study Population.

Study Sample.

Sampling Procedure

Methods and Procedures in Data Collection

Primary Data

In-Depth Interview

Researcher-administered Questionnaire.

Review of Secondary Data

Data Analysis

Method of Data Analysis

IMPACT OF CELEBRITIES’ DRESSING PATTERN IN SOCIAL MEDIA AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT’S CHOICE OF CLOTHING

Introduction

INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL MEDIA EXPOSURE ON FASHION TRENDS AMONG UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

CHAPTER ONE/INTRODUCTION

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